GIFT  OF 


ENGINEERING    LIBRARY 
OF 

WILLIAM   B.  STOREY 

A  GRADUATE  OF 

THE    COLLEGE    OF    MECHANICS 
CLASS   OF  1881 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY 
1922 


FERRO  CARBON 
TITANIUM  IN 
STEEL  MAKING 


1916 

THE  TITANIUM  ALLOY 
MANUFACTURING   CO. 

NIAGARA    FALLS,  N.  Y. 

^^^^=E:EE:^^^=E^^EE:^^=^^^=::E 
Copyright,  1916,  by  The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co. 


•\ 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS 

•  • 

PAGE 

FERRO      CARBON-TITANIUM      IN 

STEEL    MAKING 3 

STEEL    CASTINGS 9 

FORGING    STEELS 1 9 

STRUCTURAL    STEELS .       .       .       .  28 

RAILS 35 

SHEET    AND    PLATE    STEELS         .  52 

WIRE    STEELS 69 

PIPE    OK    TUBE    SHEETS    .       .       .  8 1 

A  STUDY  OF  ALUMINA  IN  STEEL  84 
DETERMINATION     OF     ALUMINA 

IN    STEEI 99 

PREPARATION  OF  WIRE  SAM- 
PLES FOR  MICROSCOPIC  EX- 
AMINATION    1 06 

BRONZE    CASTINGS         ....  IO8 
TITANIUM    ALUMINUM     BRONZE 

CASTINGS  .                                            ,  108 


FERRO  CARBON-TITANIUM  IN 
STEEL  MAKING 


A 


N  average  analysis  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  as 
manufactured  by  this  Company  for  the  treat- 
ment of  Steel  is  as  follows : 


Silicon .    . 
Titanium 


1.41 
J5-79 


Carbon 7.46 

Manganese o.n 

Aluminum 0.80 

Phosphorus °-°5 

Sulphur 0.08 

Iron  (by  difference) 74-3° 

100.00 

This  material,  as  sold,  is  guaranteed  to  contain  at 
least  15  per  cent  Titanium. 

The  present  prices  on  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  are  as 
follows : 

In  carloads  (56,000  pounds  minimum),  eight  cents  per 
pound. 

In  lots  from  one  ton  to  carload,  ten  cents  per  pound. 

In  less  than  ton  lots,  twelve  and  one-half  cents  per  pound. 

All  F.  O.  B.  Suspension  Bridge,  N.  Y. 

Terms — 30  days,  net. 

The  material  is  subject  to  5th  Class  Rate  in  carload 
quantities  and  4th  Class  L.  C.  L.,  in  official  classification 
territory. 

501  SOT 


4       Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

To  provide  for  its  convenient  and  efficient  use  in  the 
various  methods  of  Steel  Making  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium 
is  stocked  in  the  following  sizes: 

Standard  Medium  through  if"  opening — On  f"  screen. 

F  Size  through   f"   opening — On  ^f/  screen. 

E  Size  through   jV'  opening — On  -fa"  screen. 

D  Size  through  -fa"  opening — On   ^"   screen. 

C  Size  through   |"   opening — On  -fa"  screen. 

A  Size  through  TS//  opening. 

For  use  under  certain  conditions,  the  finer  sizes  C  and 
D  are  packed  in  twenty-five  pound  cans.  These  con- 
tainers serve  to  carry  this  fine  material  through  the  slag 
and  provide  a  means  for  quickly  disseminating  it  through 
the  metal,  when  it  is  not  convenient  or  possible  to  hold 
the  steel  longer  than  three  or  four  minutes  in  the  ladle. 
This  method  of  adding  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  has 
proved  of  especial  value  in  the  treatment  of  Converter 
Steel. 

The  value  of  Titanium  Treatment  of  Steel  is  now  so 
well  recognized  and  the  use  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium 
so  general  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  refer  to  the  properties 
of  Titanium,  which  are  well  known  to  all  metallurgists 
and  practical  steel  men. 

Titanium  alone  of  all  the  deoxidizers  leaves  practically 
no  product  of  its  oxidation  in  the  finished  steel.  In 
rail  steel,  for  instance,  which  has  been  treated  with  o.io 
Titanium  the  total  Titanium  in  the  finished  steel  has 
never  been  found  to  exceed  .03  and  any  such  amount 
as  this  is  very  unusual.  This  minute  quantity  is  always 
evenly  distributed  throughout  the  ingot  and  has  never 
been  found  in  streaks  or  segregated  areas  as  are 
Alumina,  Manganese  Sulphide,  or  Iron  Silicates. 

When  Manganese  or  Silicon  is  added  to  a  ladle  of 
steel  in  the  form  of  Ferro  Alloys  from  65  %  to  85  %  of 
the  total  Manganese  or  Silicon  will  be  found  in  the  final 
product.  These  metals  do  not  remain  in  the  steel  uncom- 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.       5 

bined.  They  occur  as  Manganese  Carbide,  Oxide  or 
Sulphide,  Iron  Silicates,  etc.,  and  all  of  these  impurities, 
except  the  Carbide,  are  known  to  form  streaks  or  agglom- 
erations which  cause  weak  spots  to  develop  in  the 
metal. 

Aluminum  is  a  powerful  deoxidizer,  the  most  powerful 
known,  but  to  use  Aluminum  in  Steel  without  considering 
the  results  of  its  use,  in  so  far  as  the  formation  of  Alumina 
is  concerned,  is  now  well  recognized  as  a  dangerous 
practice. 

Alumina,  formed  by  the  oxidation  of  Aluminum,  is 
probably  the  most  harmful  of  all  products  resulting  from 
the  use  of  a  deoxidizer.  This  oxide  is  absolutely  infusible 
at  the  temperature  of  molten  steel  and  agglomerations 
of  it  are  found  in  all  steels,  in  which  any  noticeable 
quantity  of  aluminum  has  been  used. 

Many  engineers  to-day  absolutely  prohibit  the  use  of 
Aluminum  in  the  manufacture  of  their  Steel  as  their 
experience  has  convinced  them  that  the  products  of  its 
oxidation  remaining  in  the  Steel  are  weakening  elements 
too  dangerous  to  be  safely  disregarded. 

It  is  apparent  that  of  these  well-known  deoxidizers 
Titanium  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  used  without  adding 
to  the  Steel  oxides  or  slags,  which  segregate  to  a  possibly 
dangerous  extent. 

As  the  foregoing  facts  have  been  clearly  demonstrated 
in  practice  the  reasons  for  calling  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium 
the  "Final  Cleanser"  are  clear.  These  facts,  however, 
are  not  easily  demonstrated  and  many  Steelmakers  have 
tried  Titanium  in  a  superficial  way  and  have  been  con- 
vinced, to  their  entire  satisfaction,  that  Titanium  is  of 
no  value  in  their  practice. 

That  judgment  of  this  sort  is  of  no  real  importance— 
except  as  a  retardant  element — is  proven  by  the  fact  that 
the  firmest  believers  in  and  largest  users  of  Ferro  Carbon- 
Titanium  are  those  who  have  used  it  for  the  longest  time 


6       Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

and  in  the  largest  quantities  after  thorough  and  pains- 
taking investigation. 

To-day  Titanium  is  being  used  in  practically  every 
grade  of  Steel,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  carbon,  in 
alloy  and  other  special  steels. 

The  use  of  Titanium  in  Steel  must  not  be  confused 
with  that  of  Nickel,  Chromium,  Vanadium  and  other 
alloying  elements  which  are  added  primarily  to  introduce 
a  certain  definite  quantity  of  the  special  element  to  the 
Steel  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  to  the  metal  certain 
specific  and  well-known  qualities.  Titanium  on  the  other 
hand,  is  used  solely  as  a  deoxidizer  and  scavenger  and  in 
the  case  of  alloy  steels  it  cleanses  the  steel  not  only  of  its 
initial  impurities  but  also  of  those  introduced  by  the  oxida- 
tion or  the  combination  of  a  part  of  the  alloying  elements. 

The  functions  of  Titanium  vary  in  degree  in  various 
grades  of  steel — in  low  carbon  steel  such  as  sheet  or  wire — 
small  quantities  varying  from  two  to  four  pounds  of 
Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  per  ton  of  metal  are  used  pri- 
marily for  scavenging  purposes  to  remove  impurities  and 
produce  a  superior  surface  to  which  spelter  or  tin  will 
adhere  more  tenaciously,  while  in  high  carbon  steels  the 
use  of  larger  quantities  in  addition  to  cleansing  the  steel 
by  thorough  deoxidation  greatly  reduces  segregation  thus 
insuring  a  sound,  clean  steel  of  uniform  composition. 

A  FEW  GENERAL   POINTS   REGARDING  THE  USE 

OF  FERRO  CARBON-TITANIUM 

IN  STEEL 

MAKE  THE  STEEL  IN  THE  FURNACE.  That  is  what 
the  furnace  is  for — and  complete  its  deoxidation  and 
cleansing  in  the  ladle — which  is  the  proper  place. 

Slag  is  charged  with  oxide — therefore  to  throw  a  pow- 
erful and  costly  deoxidizer  into  a  ladle  of  steel  into  which 
slag  is  flowing  is  a  most  wasteful  practice. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.       7 

See  that  the  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  is  all  added  before 
the  slag  begins  to  "run."  It  is  the  steel  you  wish  to 
improve  not  the  slag. 

In  High  Carbon  Steels  where  Titanium  is  used  keep 
the  silicon  content  on  the  low  side  and  do  not  over-heat 
the  steel  in  the  furnace.  If  these  points  are  observed 
there  will  be  no  excessive  piping  in  the  ingots. 


No  results  of  physical  tests  are  given  in  these  pages 
because  no  claim  is  made  that  a  Titanium  Treated  Steel 
will  have  superior  physical  qualities  to  a  clean,  thoroughly 
deoxidized  untreated  steel  of  the  same  chemical  compo- 
sition. 

It  is  claimed,  however,  that  Titanium  Treatment  by 
"leveling  up"  practice  from  heat  to  heat  will  produce 
regularly  a  clean,  uniform  steel,  to  which  each  of  the 
component  elements  will  impart  its  maximum  physical 
properties. 

This  condition  is  made  possible  by  the  uniform  distri- 
bution of  the  various  elements  throughout  the  ingot  and 
by  the  practical  elimination  of  entrapped  slags  and 
oxides. 

IN  OPEN  HEARTH   PRACTICE 

For  large  heats  of  over  twenty-five  tons  use  "Standard 
Medium"  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium. 

In  heats  between  fifteen  and  twenty-five  tons  use 
"F"  size. 

In  heats  between  five  and  fifteen  tons  use  "E"  size. 

For  heats  of  less  than  five  tons  use  "C"  or  "D"  size. 

IN  BESSEMER   PRACTICE 

Use  "C"  and  "D"  sizes,  which  are  packed  in  25-pound 
cans. 

In  small  converters,  such  as  the  Tropenas  furnace 
having  a  capacity  of  from  one  to  five  tons,  the  "C"  and 


8       Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

"D"  sizes  may  be  used  without  containers  and  should 
be  added  in  the  ladle.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  to 
keep  the  slag  back  in  the  converter  by  means  of  a  skimmer 
or  other  device  until  all  the  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  has 
been  added.  

Our  staff  includes  a  corps  of  trained  metallurgists  and 
practical  melters,  whose  gratuitous  services  are  offered 
to  all  users  and  prospective  users  of  this  Company's 
products. 

The  unique  opportunity  which  these  men  have  had  of 
studying  the  use  of  these  products  in  a  great  variety  of 
steels,  made  at  different  plants,  has  resulted  in  the  de- 
velopment of  a  thoroughly  experienced  force  of  technical 
and  practical  men  splendidly  equipped  to  assist  in  solving 
steel  mill  problems  through  the  use  of  Ferro  Carbon- 
Titanium  and  other  products  of  this  Company. 


STEEL  CASTINGS 

STEEL  for  castings  is  made  in  acid  and  basic  open 
hearth,  in  converter  and  electric  furnaces,  and 
also  in  crucible  pots. 

The  most  common  sources  of  annoyance  in  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  castings  are  cracks  and  unsoundness. 

Cracks  can  sometimes  be  attributed  to  molding  con- 
ditions for  in  cooling  in  the  molds  the  steel  will  contract 
and  there  is  a  point  where  it  has  lost  its  fluidity  and  is 
more  or  less  viscous.  If  there  is  any  resistance  offered 
to  the  metal  during  the  cooling  cracks  are  inevitably 
formed.  In  the  case  of  over-oxidized  metal  at  the  range 
of  temperatures  where  viscosity  is  manifest  the  tendency 
to  tear  is  increased  and  a  greater  number  of  cracks  will 
be  found  than  in  thoroughly  deoxidized  steel. 

Unsoundness  is  manifest  usually  in  steel  castings  in 
the  form  of  blow  holes,  of  varying  formation. 

Shrinkage  holes  due  to  the  contraction  of  the  metal 
during  cooling  can  be  properly  taken  care  of  by  sink  heads. 

Blow  holes  may  exist  all  through  a  casting  or  only 
near  the  surface.  They  are  due  to  the  presence  of  gas 
and  their  shape  may  be  oblong,  lenticular  or  spherical. 
If  oblong  in  shape  they  are  usually  due  to  the  metal  being 
incompletely  deoxidized  or  "killed,"  in  which  case  they 
will  be  found  near  the  surface.  If  globular  or  spherical 
they  are  caused  by  the  presence  of  vapor  or  air  and  not 


i  o    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

by  chemical  reaction  taking  place  in  the  metal  during 
its  solidification  in  the  molds.  These  last  two  types  of 
blow  holes  can  be  attributed  to  damp  sand  or  imperfect 
molding. 

The  oblong  type  of  blow  hole  frequently  found  near 
the  surface  of  steel  castings  can  be  traced  to  the  presence 
of  oxides  in  the  steel  and  in  particular  to  that  of  man- 
ganese oxide. 

In  the  preliminary  deoxidation  of  steel  ferrosilicon 
and  ferromanganese  are  used. 

Their  functions  may  be  expressed  as  follows  : 

2FeO+  Si  =Fea+SiO4 
Fe  +MnO 


The  products  of  these  reactions,  Silica  and  Man- 
ganese Oxide,  being  of  lower  specific  gravity  than  steel 
will  have  a  tendency  to  rise  to  the  top  of  the  ladle. 
Some  portion  of  these  oxides,  however,  will  be  entrapped 
in  the  steel. 

Unfortunately  Silicon  in  addition  to  combining  with 
oxygen  will  also  be  found  by  microscopic  examination  in 
combination  with  iron  as  iron  silicates. 

Chemical  analysis  will  not  disclose  in  what  combina- 
tion the  manganese  exists,  i.  e.,  as  carbide,  sulphide  or 
oxide.  This  last  combination  is  the  most  deleterious  of 
the  three  for  the  following  reason  :  If  a  steel  containing 
manganese  oxide  has  been  poured  in  a  sand  mold  there 
is  a  reaction  between  the  oxide  and  the  carbon  of  the 
steel  when  the  steel  has  almost  reached  the  point  of  solidi- 
fication, resulting  in  the  formation  of  carbon  monoxide, 
as  expressed  in  the  following  equation  : 


The  same  general  reaction  takes  place  between  iron 
oxide  and  carbon  as  follows  : 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     i  i 

This  carbon  monoxide  by  expansion  will  be  forced 
near  the  surface  of  castings,  resulting  in  the  formation  of 
oblong  blow  holes.  At  the  time  such  blow  holes  are 
formed,  particularly  in  light  castings,  the  base  of  the 
sink  head  or  riser  will  already  have  been  chilled  so  that 
no  further  feeding  therefrom  is  possible  and  the  entrapped 
gas  must  inevitably  remain  in  the  finished  casting. 

The  physical  qualities  of  a  casting  will  be  affected 
not  only  by  unsoundness  or  blow  holes  in  the  steel 
but  also  by  such  impurities  as  slags  and  oxides  as 
well  as  by  segregation  and  improper  annealing  or  heat 
treatment.  It  is  well  known  that  steel  which  is  segre- 
gated will  not  give  uniform  results  in  annealing  or  heat 
treatment. 

It  will  also  be  found  that  poor  physical  qualities  can  be 
traced  to  defective  annealing,  which  must  be  considered 
a  waste  of  time  and  money  unless  it  is  done  with  proper 
care.  Theoretically  all  steel  castings  should  be  annealed 
although  it  is  believed  by  some  metallurgists  that  for 
steel  low  in  carbon,  and  in  particular  basic  open-hearth 
steel  under  .21  carbon,  annealing  will  not  improve  the 
grain  and  does  not  affect  the  physical  qualities  to  any 
important  extent. 

TREATMENT  OF  STEEL  FOR  CASTINGS   WITH 
FERRO  CARBON-TITANIUM 

Assuming  that  by  whatever  process  it  has  been  made 
the  steel  is  in  proper  condition  in  the  furnace,  vessel  or 
pot  and  that  the  addition  of  Ferromanganese  has  been 
made  prior  to  the  tapping  or  pouring.  If  50  per  cent 
Ferrosilicon  is  to  be  used  it  will  be  added  to  the  steel  as 
it  flows  or  is  poured  from  the  furnace  and  this  addition 
is  followed  immediately  by  that  of  from  four  to  six  pounds 
of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  per  ton  of  steel.  In  making 
the  addition  of  Titanium  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is 


i  2    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


KvV.^V       v"':'  -'-     -     'Vt/^ 

^M^i  vvf*-^- 

•••V'-X  V'-:  V  0  "-''   -•'"'"**'    ^••vV. 

m*>'-'':^^'^ 

tLk^^^f;       43ui   .  •^.///////'/ .'^^  x 


FIG.  i  —  Structure  of  a  soft  steel  casting,  as  cast,  magnified  20  diameters.    This  steel 
had  good  physical  properties  in  tension  without  annealing. 


•". 
^ 


FIG.  2  —  Structure  of  an  annealed  test-bar  from  same  heat  as  Fig.  i,  magnified  20  diam- 
eters.   This  bar  had  practically  the  same  physical  properties  in 
tension  as  the  unannealed  steel. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     i  3 


FIG.  3— Structure  of  a  steel  casting  that  was  badly  annealed,  magnified  50  diameters. 


x£^?5  IK«  *t  >M 


TpCfetf 

''^^3^»i-;' 

FIG.  4  —  Structure  of  a  properly  annealed  steel  casting,  magnified  50  diameters. 


1  4    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

completed  before  the  slag  begins  to  flow  or  the  Titanium 
will  be  acted  upon  by  the  slag  and  thus  be  wasted. 

In  Open  Hearth  Steel  six  to  eight  minutes  should  elapse 
between  the  final  addition  of  the  last  of  the  Titanium 
and  the  pouring  of  the  steel  into  the  first  mold. 

In  Converter  Steel  where  the  finer  sizes  of  Ferro  Car- 
bon-Titanium are  used  this  time  may  be  reduced  to 
from  three  to  four  minutes. 

This  holding  of  the  steel  in  the  ladle  is  essential  so 
that  sufficient  time  may  elapse  for  the  slags  and  oxides 
always  present  in  molten  steel  to  rise  to  the  surface.  The 
combination  of  these  slags  with  titanic  oxide  renders 
them  more  fusible  and  possibly  by  increasing  their* 
volume  reduces  their  specific  gravity.  This  lapse  of  time 
will  not  cause  the  metal  to  chill  in  the  ladle  because  the 
oxidation  of  Titanium  is  an  exothermic  or  heat  producing 
reaction. 

Immediately  upon  its  addition  the  Titanium  will  react 
on  the  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese,  as  per  the  following 
equations:  %2Fe()  +  Ti==2Fe 


It  will  be  noted,  therefore,  that  Titanium  acts  not  only 
as  a  deoxidizer  but  that  the  titanic  oxide  formed  by  the 
oxidation  of  Titanium  is  in  addition  a  thorough  scavenger 
and  cleanser. 

The  use  of  aluminum  as  a  deoxidizer  must  be  dis- 
carded because  by  its  oxidation  alumina,  an  oxide  abso- 
lutely infusible  at  the  temperature  of  molten  steel,  is 
produced.  The  fact  that  alumina  has  a  great  tendency 
to  remain  in  the  steel  to  the  detriment  of  the  latter  is 
well  known  and  data  substantiating  this  fact  is  presented 
on  pages  84  to  105. 

Steels  of  the  following  compositions  will,  when  properly 
made  and  treated  with  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium,  set 
quietly  in  the  molds  and  give  good,  sound  castings.  If 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     i  5 


FIG.  5  —  Non-metallic  inclusions  in  a  Bessemer  steel  casting  that  was  deoxidized  with 
aluminum,  magnified  200  diameters.    The  large  dark  spots  are  alumina. 


FIG.  6  — Non-metallic  inclusions  in  steel  like  Fig.  5,  but  treated  with  titanium  instead 
of  aluminum,  and  magnified  200  diameters.    Only  small  sulphides 
and  silicates  are  present  here. 


1 6    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


properly  annealed  such  castings  will  have  the  maximum 
physical  properties  obtainable  for  steels  of  their  particular 
chemical  composition. 


C 

Si 

s 

p 

Mn 

Soft 
Medium 
Hard 

.  1  7  tO    .20 

.  20  to  .  30 
.  30  to  .  40 

•3°  to  .35 
•3°  to  .35 
•30  to  .35 

.015  to  .050 
.015  to  .050 
.015  to  .050 

.020  to  .040 

.  O2O  tO    .  040 
.  O2O  to   .  040 

•5°  to  .75 
.50  to  .75 
.75  to  1  .00 

In  castings  of  heavy  section,  such  as  steel  pinions, 
rolls,  etc.,  the  use  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  will  reduce 
segregation  to  a  minimum  in  addition  to  thoroughly 
deoxidizing  and  cleansing  the  steel. 

The  use  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  steel  for  castings 
is  now  the  regular  practice  in  a  great  number  of  foundries 
where  it  has  been  found  that  this  practice  not  only  im- 
proves the  quality  of  the  castings  but  actually  reduces 
costs  by  increasing  the  yield  of  salable  product. 

ELECTRIC   FURNACE   STEEL  CASTINGS 

The  electric  furnace  is  being  used  more  and  more 
extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  castings  as  this 
process  enables  the  foundryman  to  obtain  a  very  hot 
steel  without  over-oxidation,  which  is  very  important, 
especially  in  the  manufacture  of  castings  of  light  section. 
Of  all  processes  used  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  the 
basic  electric  furnace  should  give  the  most  thoroughly 
deoxidized  product  as  the  chief  or  basic  claim  made 
when  these  furnaces  first  appeared  on  the  market  some 
eight  years  ago,  was  for  the  thorough  deoxidation  possible 
with  a  slag  or  blanket  of  carbide  of  calcium. 

In  order,  however,  to  produce  this  thorough  deoxida- 
tion the  slag,  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  metal  under 
the  high  temperature  of  the  arc  by  carburizing  a  good 
basic  slag  with  coke,  must  remain  in  contact  with  the 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     17 


FIG-  7  —  Segregated  group  of  alumina  particles  in  an  electric  steel  casting, 
magnified  200  diameters. 


FIG.  8— Slag  globule  in  an  electric  steel  casting,  magnified  200  diameters. 


i  8    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

bath  sufficiently  long  to  accomplish  the  purpose.  The 
presence  of  silica  falling  from  the  roof  of  the  furnace, 
or  impurities  in  the  lime  might  prevent  the  formation  of 
carbide  of  calcium,  in  which  case  the  slag  would  not 
completely  deoxidize  the  steel. 

Admitting,  however,  that  the  steel  has  been  thoroughly 
deoxidized  in  the  furnace  it  will  be  reoxidized  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  during  the  tapping  into  the  ladle  and  also 
become  contaminated  with  slag  as  the  latter  usually  flows 
into  the  ladle  before  the  steel  in  this  process. 

In  case  the  hearth  of  the  electric  furnace  is  acid  instead 
of  basic  the  process  becomes  simply  a  melting  operation 
and  the  deoxidation  must  be  effected  as  in  the  case  of 
open  hearth  steel. 

In  much  of  the  electric  steel  that  is  now  made  aluminum 
is  added  in  the  ladle  to  overcome  the  reoxidation  where  a 
basic  lining  has  been  used  or  to  deoxidize  the  steel  in 
the  case  of  an  acid  lined  furnace.  The  use  of  aluminum 
is  just  as  objectionable  in  electric  steel  as  in  any  other 
because  of  the  formation  of  its  infusible  oxide,  alumina, 
some  of  which  segregates  and  remains  in  the  steel  to  the 
great  detriment  of  the  latter. 

If,  however,  from  four  to  six  pounds  of  Ferro  Carbon- 
Titanium  are  added  during  the  tapping  of  the  steel  into 
the  ladle,  it  will  in  the  case  of  a  basic  lined  furnace  com- 
plete deoxidation,  which  may  not  have  been  thorough 
due  to  impurities  in  the  carbide  of  calcium  slag,  and  take 
care  of  any  reoxidation  during  the  tapping  and  in  the 
case  of  an  acid  lined  furnace  complete  the  deoxidation 
of  the  steel,  and  it  will  also  in  both  cases  by  the  fluxing 
action  of  titanic  oxide  free  the  metal  from  slag  and  oxide 
inclusions. 

In  this  case  as  in  others  the  steel  should  be  held  in  the 
ladle  from  six  to  eight  minutes  to  permit  the  slags  and 
oxides  rendered  more  fusible  by  combination  with  titanic 
oxide  to  rise  to  the  surface. 


FORGING  STEELS 

STEEL  for  forging  is  usually  made  with  a  range  of 
carbon  of  from  .18  to  1.50,  either  with  or  with- 
out a  content  of  silicon.  The  three  most  serious 
defects  in  steel  forgings  in  the  order  of  their  importance 
are :  segregation,  seams  and  surface  defects.  Until 
lately  very  little  attention  was  paid  to  segregation  but  some 
very  severe  specifications  have  been  adopted  recently  by 
a  number  of  railroads  and  other  large  users  of  steel  not 
only  for  rails,  which  are  really  forging  steels,  but  also 
for  axles,  tires,  etc.  These  specifications  have  focused 
attention  upon  the  question  of  segregation  in  medium 
and  high  carbon  forging  steels. 

Most  plants  use  chipping  hammers  which  are  operated 
constantly  to  remove  seams  and  other  surface  defects 
from  the  billets.  The  causes  of  these  defects  can  be 
traced  to  the  ingots,  which  contain  small  globules  of 
slags,  oxides,  etc.  These  are  elongated  in  rolling  and 
later  are  forced  to  the  surface  during  the  various  reduc- 
tions of  the  section. 

The  chipping  of  the  surface  of  a  billet  removes  the 
visible  seams  but  when  the  billet  is  further  reduced  to  a 
smaller  section  more  seams  are  forced  to  the  surface. 

This  fact  clearly  demonstrates  that  the  air  hammer 
does  not  furnish  a  proper  remedy  for  the  removal  of 
seams  but  that  this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  the 


20    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

production  of  a  cleaner   steel,   i.  e.,   the   elimination   of 
globules  of  slags  and  oxides  in  the  ingot. 

FORGING  STEELS  WITH  AND  WITHOUT 
A  SILICON  CONTENT 

In  the  manufacture  of  steel  forgings  two  distinct  grades 
are  used ;  the  one  with  and  the  other  without  a  content 
of  silicon. 

FORGING  STEEL  WITHOUT  SILICON.  Forging  steel 
made  without  a  content  of  silicon  will  work  when  poured 
into  the  molds.  It  is  the  usual  practice  for  steel  manu- 
facturers to  practically  "kill"  such  steel  by  an  addition 
of  aluminum  to  the  steel  in  the  mold  and  then  to  cap 
the  mold,  or  to  make  an  addition  of  powdered  50  per 
cent  ferrosilicon,  which  is  added  in  the  top  of  the  ingot. 

This  grade  of  steel  will  necessarily  show  more  segre- 
gation than  when  the  steel  has  been  completely  "killed" 
by  the  addition  of  a  deoxidizer  in  the  ladle.  Blow  holes 
and  ingots  with  spongy  heads  are  usual  in  this  grade  of 
forging  steel. 

FORGING  STEEL  HAVING  A  CONTENT  OF  AT  LEAST 
.10  SILICON.  In  the  manufacture  of  forging  steel  with 
at  least  .10  silicon  the  latter  being  added  to  the  ladle  in 
the  form  of  50  per  cent  ferrosilicon,  the  metal  will  lay 
quiet  or  "dead"  and  no  addition  of  aluminum  or  pow- 
dered silicon  in  the  mold  will  be  necessary  nor  will  there 
be  any  necessity  for  capping  the  molds. 

Ingots  so  manufactured  will  show  a  shrinkage  cavity 
or  pipe,  which  should  never  extend  below  15  per  cent, 
from  the  top  of  the  ingot. 

In  case  the  steel  is  made  in  acid  open-hearth  furnaces 
the  silicon  content  can  be  obtained  by  an  addition  of 
12  per  cent  ferrosilicon  in  the  bath,  it  being  preferable 
that  any  addition  of  ferromanganese  shall  also  be  made 
before  the  steel  is  tapped  into  the  ladle. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     2 1 


* 


FIG.  9  —  Streaks  of  alumina  in  a  billet  of  forging  steel  deoxidized  with  aluminum.   Sec- 
tion cut  parallel  to  direction  of  rolling,  not  etched,  and  magnified  200  diameters. 


FIG.  10  —  Typical  small  sulphide  and  silicate  fibres  in  a  billet  of  forging  steel  treated 

with  titanium.    Section  cut  parallel  to  direction  of  rolling,  not 

etched,  and  magnified  200  diameters. 


22    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  II  — Sulphur  print  of  segregated  untreated  forging  steel. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     23 


..  • .,  • 


FIG.  12  —  Sulphur  print  of  homogeneous  Titanium  treated  forging  steel. 


24    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

The  use  of  aluminum  added  either  in  the  ladle  or  in 
the  molds  will  necessarily  introduce  alumina  into  the 
steel.  This  oxide  is  infusible  at  the  temperature  of  molten 
steel  and  for  this  reason  a  large  part  of  it  will  become 
entrapped  in  the  metal  and  if  it  either  segregates  or 
forms  streaks  of  small  particles  it  will,  as  has  been  clearly 
shown,  exert  a  seriously  weakening  influence  upon  the 
steel. 

Unless  forging  steels  are  thoroughly  deoxidized  and 
cleansed  microscopic  examination  will  disclose  the  pres- 
ence of  slags,  oxides,  silicates,  etc.,  all  of  which  con- 
tribute largely  to  the  formation  of  seams,  which  of 
themselves  are  weakening  elements. 

If  there  is  serious  segregation  in  a  forging  it  cannot  be 
properly  annealed  or  heat  treated  for  the  very  simple 
reason  that  the  carbon  content  varies  from  the  outside 
to  the  center  and  as  is  well  known  the  same  treatment 
will  not  be  applicable  to  steel  of  different  carbon  contents. 

THE  USE   OF   FERRO   CARBON-TITANIUM   IN 
STEEL  FOR   FORCINGS 

BASIC  OPEN  HEARTH.  When  the  steel  is  in  condition 
and  ready  to  be  tapped  from  the  furnace  the  80  per  cent 
ferromanganese  is  added  to  the  bath  and  the  heat  tapped. 
During  the  tapping  the  50  per  cent  ferrosilicon  is  added 
(provided  the  steel  is  to  have  a  silicon  content).  For 
reasons  of  economy  some  manufacturers  prefer  to  make 
the  addition  of  ferromanganese  in  the  ladle  at  the  time 
of  tapping,  but  this  practice  will  result  in  the  production 
of  steel  of  inferior  quality. 

In  the  manufacture  of  all  grades  of  steel  for  forgings 
the  carbon  should  be  caught  coming  down  unless  the 
steel  is  recarburized  in  the  furnace  with  hot  metal  so 
that  no  large  addition  of  barley  coal  in  the  ladle  will  be 
necessary.  Such  addition  of  coal  in  the  ladle  will  result 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     25 

in  non-uniformity  of  carbon  and  also  add  non-metallic 
inclusions  to  the  steel  from  the  ash,  the  latter  usually 
amounting  to  from  15  to  25  per  cent  of  the  total  weight 
of  the  coal. 

The  addition  of  from  six  to  thirteen  pounds  of  Ferro 
Carbon-Titanium  per  ton  of  steel  (the  variation  in  the 
amount  depending  upon  the  class  of  forging  steel  being 
manufactured)  should  be  made  as  the  final  addition  in 
the  ladle,  care  being  taken,  however,  that  all  the  Titanium 
is  added  before  the  slag  begins  to  flow.  The  Titanium  will 
reduce  all  oxides  present,  such  as  those  of  iron  and  man- 
ganese, to  metallic  form  and  the  titanic  oxide  formed  by 
the  oxidation  of  the  Titanium  will  combine  with  all  slags, 
silicates,  etc.,  in  suspension  in  the  steel.  These  combina- 
tions, being  more  fusible  than  the  original  impurities  prior 
to  being  combined  with  the  titanic  oxide,  will  rise  more 
readily  to  the  surface,  leaving  a  thoroughly  deoxidized, 
clean  steel  in  the  ladle  to  be  teemed  into  the  molds. 

In  order  that  this  action  of  titanic  oxide  may  be  com- 
plete the  steel  should  be  held  in  the  ladle  from  six  to 
eight  minutes. 

ACID  OPEN-HEARTH.  As  already  stated,  the  silicon 
content  can  be  obtained  in  Acid  Open-Hearth  practice 
(where  a  content  of  silicon  is  required)  by  the  addition  of  • 
12  per  cent  ferrosilicon  to  the  bath.  It  is  also  preferable 
that  the  80  per  cent  ferromanganese  be  added  in  the  fur- 
nace and  that  the  carbon  be  caught  coming  down,  or  that 
the  steel  be  recarburized  with  hot  metal  in  the  furnace. 

The  addition  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  is  made  in 
this  grade  of  steel  in  the  same  manner  as  in  basic  forging 
steel  with  or  without  a  silicon  content. 

AXLE   STEELS 

The  grade  of  steel  used  for  axles  is  of  forging  com- 
position and  is  made  with  and  without  a  silicon  con- 
tent by  both  the  basic  and  acid  open-hearth  processes. 


26    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  13  —  Sulphur  print  of  titanium  treated  8-inch  axle,  showing  entire 
absence  of  segregation. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     27 

An  addition  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  of  from  six 
to  ten  pounds  per  ton  of  steel  will  not  only  improve  the 
surface  of  the  axles  but  the  physical  qualities  as  well. 
Little  segregation  will  be  found,  which  is  an  especially 
important  consideration  in  the  case  of  steels  which  are 
subject  to  heat  treatment. 

ALLOY  FORGING  STEELS 

Every  grade  of  alloy  steel,  such  as  chrome,  vanadium, 
nickel,  chrome  nickel,  chrome  vanadium  and  manganese 
steel  can  be  considered  as  a  forging  steel,  as  they  are 
manufactured  practically  the  same  as  a  plain  carbon 
steel  except  that  the  addition  of  the  ferro  alloys  is  usually 
made  in  the  furnace. 

Alloy  steels  are  equally  subject  to  segregation  and 
more  subject  to  seams  than  plain  carbon  steel  and  for 
this  reason  it  is  especially  necessary  that  forging  alloy 
steels  should  be  treated  with  from  eight  to  thirteen  pounds 
of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  per  ton  of  steel,  the  addition 
being  made  as  usual  in  the  ladle. 

STEEL  FOR  TIRES 

This  steel  is  also  a  forging  steel  and  is  made  in  both 
basic  and  acid  open  hearth  furnaces.  An  addition  of 
from  six  to  ten  pounds  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  per 
ton  of  steel  will  give  a  clean,  thoroughly  deoxidized 
metal,  which  will  be  free  from  excessive  segregation  and 
will  give  uniform  results  in  annealing  or  heat  treatment. 


STRUCTURAL  STEEL 

STEEL  for  the  rolling  of  structural  shapes  is  usually 
cast  in  molds  of  large  size,  the  resulting  ingots 
being  first  reduced  to  blooms,  billets  or  slabs  and 
then  to  finished  shapes  which  are  usually  I  beams, 
channels,  tees,  plates  or  angles. 

The  larger  shapes  are  generally  rolled  from  the  ingot 
to  the  finished  material  without  reheating. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  specifications  for  struc- 
tural steel.  The  limits  for  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are 
generally  .04  and  .05  respectively.  The  contents  of  car- 
bon and  manganese  depend  largely  on  the  purpose  for 
which  the  steel  is  to  be  used.  There  are  also  specifica- 
tions for  different  physical  requirements,  such  as  tensile 
strength,  elongation,  character  of  fracture  and  cold 
bending  without  fracture. 

The  following  is  an  average  chemical  analysis  for 
structural  steel: 

Carbon      .    .    . 20  to  .22 

Manganese 32  to  .40 

Sulphur  under 04 

Phosphorus  under 05 

Segregation  is  a  very  serious  defect  in  structural  steel, 
but  in  the  past  it  has  not  received  anything  like  the 
attention  that  it  should  have  either  from  structural  steel 
makers  or  users. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     29 

MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL  FOR  HEAVY 
STRUCTURAL  SECTIONS 

This  steel  is  made  by  the  Basic  Open-Hearth  process 
—no  addition  of  silicon  being  made  when  the  steel  is 
poured  from  the  furnace  to  the  ladle.  When  the  steel  is 
teemed  into  the  molds  it  will  "work"  or  "rim  in."  This 
steel  is  usually  poured  into  open  top  molds  and  "killed" 
during  the  pouring  by  an  addition  of  aluminum.  In 
many  instances  from  six  ounces  to  one  pound  of  aluminum 
is  used  per  ton  of  steel.  The  object  of  "  killing"  the  steel 
in  this  way  is  to  remove  the  blow  holes  and  to  a  certain 
extent  the  segregation.  In  many  instances  a  small 
amount  of  aluminum  is  also  added  to  the  steel  in  the 
ladle. 

The  addition  of  aluminum  in  the  molds  is  more  detri- 
mental to  the  steel  than  an  addition  to  the  ladle,  because 
alumina,  produced  by  the  oxidation  of  aluminum,  will 
remain  in  the  steel  to  a  much  greater  extent  and  wrill 
be,  as  has  been  previously  shown,  a  weakening  element. 

In  the  manufacture  of  structural  steel  we  recommend 
the  use  of  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  pounds  of 
Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  per  ton  of  steel,  the  Titanium 
being  the  last  addition  made  to  the  ladle.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  all  the  Titanium  is  added  before  the  slag 
begins  to  flow  and  the  steel  should  be  held  in  the  ladle 
from  six  to  eight  minutes  after  the  last  of  the  Titanium 
has  been  added  to  allow  time  for  the  Titanium  Oxide 
formed  by  the  oxidation  of  the  Titanium  to  combine 
with  any  particles  of  slag  and  by  lowering  their  melting 
points  and  decreasing  their  specific  gravity  cause  them 
to  rise  to  the  surface. 

To  "kill"  the  steel  in  the  molds  we  strongly  recom- 
mend instead  of  the  use  of  aluminum  the  addition  of 
from  two  to  three  pounds  of  powdered  50  per  cent  ferro- 
silicon,the  exact  quantity  to  be  determined  by  experiment. 


30    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

There  must  be  sufficient,  however,  to  produce  a  flat 
top  on  the  ingot  but  not  enough  to  seriously  increase 
the  depth  of  the  pipe.  This  ferrosilicon  should  be 
added  when  the  steel  has  reached  about  four  or  five 
inches  below  the  top  of  the  mold. 

COMPARISON  OF  TWO    HEATS  OF   STEEL  MADE 
FOR   20-INCH   I   BEAMS 

Heat  No.  I  was  treated  with  four  ounces  of  aluminum 
per  ton  of  steel,  added  while  the  steel  was  being  poured 
from  the  furnace  into  the  ladle  and  an  additional  four 
ounces  of  aluminum  per  ton  added  during  the  teeming 
of  the  steel  into  the  molds. 

Heat  No.  2  was  treated  with  three  pounds  of  Ferro 
Carbon-Titanium  per  ton  of  steel  in  the  ladle  and  the 
steel  was  subsequently  "killed"  in  the  molds  by  an  addi- 
tion of  three  pounds  of  powdered  ferrosilicon  added  near 
the  top  of  the  molds. 

The  ingots  in  each  case  were  25"  x  25"  section  and 
weighed  approximately  10,000  pounds. 

A  discard  of  approximately  8  per  cent  was  made  from 
the  top  of  each  ingot,  after  which  an  ingot  from  each 
heat  was  bloomed  into  billets  of  6"  x  6"  section  for  the 
purpose  of  making  segregation  comparisons. 

The  sulphur  prints  on  pages  32  and  33  show  the 
segregation  of  that  element  and  the  chemical  determina- 
tions of  carbon  and  sulphur  are  also  given. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     3  i 

The  microscopic  examination  of  samples  from  heats 
Nos.  I  and  2  discloses  the  fact  that  the  steel  from  heat 
No.  2  is  free  from  alumina  and  generally  cleaner  than 
that  from  heat  No.  I,  the  latter  showing  a  considerable 
inclusion  of  alumina,  which  very  naturally  would  unfit 
it  for  severe  duty. 

The  reasons  for  the  use  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in 
structural  steels  are  the  same  as  for  steel  for  other 
rolled  products,  such  as  rails,  axles,  etc.,  i.  e.,  the  pro- 
duction of  a  cleaner  steel  of  more  uniform  quality, 
because  of  its  freedom  from  segregation,  and  one  which 
is  dependable  in  service  because  its  chemical  consti- 
tuents are  uniformly  distributed  and,  therefore,  impart 
to  the  steel  their  maximum  physical  properties. 


32    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  14  —  Sulphur  print  of  heat  No.  I,  killed  with  aluminum. 

Chemical  Analyses 
Sulphur  Carbon 

Point  A 024  . 18 

Point  B  (center) 043  .24 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     33 


/ 


;  B 


FIG.  15  —  Sulphur  print  of  heat  No.  2,  treated  with  Titanium. 

Chemical  Analyses 
Sulphur  Carbon 

Point  A 026  .23 

Point  B  (center; 029  .245 


34    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  16  —  Photomicrograph  of  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  billet  of  heat  No.  i  (Fig.  14), 

cut  midway    between    center   and   edge,  unetched,  and    magnified    200 

diameters,  showing  part  of  a  long  streak  of  alumina  particles. 


RAILS 

IN  the  United  States,  practically  all  rails  of  the 
heavier  sections,  for  main  line  track,  are  now 
made  of  Open-Hearth  Steel,  either  by  a  direct 
process  in  the  Basic  Open-Hearth  Furnace,  or  a  com- 
bination of  Bessemer  and  Open-Hearth  processes,  known 
as  the  "  Duplex"  method.  A  discussion  of  the  Bessemer 
rail  in  these  pages  is,  therefore,  hardly  necessary. 

In  order  that  those  not  entirely  familiar  with  the  sub- 
ject may  better  understand  the  object  of  Titanium 
Treatment  in  this  grade  of  steel,  we  give  below  a  brief 
outline  of  the  usual  practice  obtaining  for  the  manu- 
facture of  Open-Hearth  Steel  for  rails. 

In  making  rail  steel  by  the  Duplex  process,  the  molten 
pig  iron  is  desiliconized,  and  partially  decarburized  in 
an  Acid  Bessemer  Converter,  and  the  steel  is  then  trans- 
ferred to  a  Basic  Open-Hearth  Furnace  where  the  final 
refining  takes  place,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  direct 
process  after  the  steel  has  been  melted  down  and  carbon 
and  silicon  reduced  to  the  same  degree.  The  Duplex 
Process  is  much  more  rapid  than  the  direct,  as  a  seventy- 
five  to  one  hundred  ton  heat  can  be  made  in  two  to  four 
hours  by  the  former,  as  against  nine  to  twelve  hours  by 
the  latter. 

The  chemical  specification  for  Open-Hearth  rails  of 
the  heavier  sections  is  approximately  within  the  following 


36    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

limits,   the   exact   range   depending   upon   the   size   and 
section  of  the  rail. 

Carbon  ..  »  »  ,  •  .  .  ,  .  .  .  .  „  ,  .  .55  to  .85 
Manganese  .  .  .  ,  ,  .  .  .',..'•„  ,  .- .60  to  .90 
Phosphorus  under  ,  -.  .  .  ,:..;  ,  .  .  ,  .04  to  .06 
Silicon  under  ....,.,,,,..  .25 

The  steel  in  the  Open-Hearth  Furnace  is  usually  melted 
down  to  from  .08  to  .20  carbon,  when  the  additions  of 
ferromanganese  or  spiegel  or  both  are  made  in  the 
furnace  to  deoxidize  the  metal,  after  which  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  molten  pig  iron  (low  phosphorus  Bessemer 
if  possible),  known  as  recarburizing  iron,  is  added  to  the 
bath  in  the  furnace  to  raise  the  carbon  to  the  desired 
point.  (In  some  cases  these  additions  are  made  in  the 
reverse  order.)  The  steel  is  then  tapped  into  a  ladle,  at 
which  time  further  additions  of  ferromanganese,  spiegel, 
or  both,  and  usually  ferrosilicon,  are  made.  The  steel 
is  then  poured  into  molds,  varying  in  size  from  19"  x  19" 
to  22"  x  25",  with  ingots  weighing  from  4,000  pounds  to 
10,000  pounds,  depending  on  the  number  of  rails  in  the 
ingot,  and  the  section  of  rail  to  be  rolled,  as  well  as  the 
length  of  tables  in  the  mill. 

SOLIDIFICATION  OF   INGOTS 

If  the  content  of  silicon  in  rail  steel  is  up  to  .15  per 
cent  to  .18  per  cent,  the  metal  will  usually  be  "dead"  in 
the  molds  and  will  slowly  solidify  without  boiling.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  silicon  content  is  much  lower,  or 
the  steel  very  hot  or  over-oxidized,  it  is  necessary  to 
add  aluminum  to  quiet  the  metal  and  prevent  boiling. 
The  deleterious  effects  of  using  aluminum  with  the 
resultant  formation  of  alumina  in  steel  subjected  to 
strains,  shock,  abrasive  wear,  etc.,  are  well  known  to 
many  metallurgists.  That  alumina  remains  in  steel  in  a 
segregated  condition  is  clearly  shown  under  the  subject 
of  "A  Study  of  Alumina  in  Steel"  on  pages  84  to  105 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     37 

in   this   booklet.     Some   railroad  engineers   specify  that 
no  aluminum  shall  be  used  in  their  rail  steel. 

SEGREGATION    AND    ITS    PREVENTION    BY    USE 
OF  ALUMINUM  AND  TITANIUM 

In  accordance  with  the  well  known  theory  of  "  selective 
freezing,"  the  central  portion  of  the  upper  part  of  an 
ingot  of  ordinary  high  carbon  steel  is  generally  segregated. 
The  amount  of  segregation  of  carbon,  phosphorus  and 
sulphur  will  average  at  least  17  per  cent,  and  is  very 
often  as  much  as  50  per  cent.  The  usual  discard  of  a 
9  per  cent  crop  from  the  top  of  the  ingot  does  not  elimi- 
nate the  segregated  portion,  and,  therefore,  the  top  rails 
(A  and  sometimes  B)  of  the  ingot  usually  show  this 
segregation  very  plainly  by  chemical  analysis,  sulphur 
prints  or  microscopical  examination.  The  metal  in  the 
central  portion  (middle  of  web  or  junction  of  web  and 
head),  representing  the  central  core  of  the  top  ("A") 
rail  of  the  ingot  will  contain  from  15  per  cent  to  40  per 
cent  higher  carbon,  phosphorus  and  sulphur  contents 
than  the  metal  near  the  surface  of  the  head,  in  at  least 
65  per  cent  of  the  heats  made  by  the  usual  Open  Hearth 
Process,  that  is,  without  the  use  of  a  powerful  deoxidizer, 
such  as  aluminum  or  Titanium.  These  deoxidizers, 
when  used  in  sufficient  quantities  to  eliminate  all  gases, 
oxides,  etc.,  cause  the  steel  to  solidify  quickly  and 
quietly  with  a  minimum  of  segregation.  As  above 
stated,  however,  the  use  of  aluminum  in  this  respect 
results  in  occlusions  of  alumina  in  the  steel,  which  are 
equally  as  undesirable  as  segregated  metal.  The  prod- 
ucts of  deoxidation  with  Titanium  do  not  remain  in 
the  steel,  as  pointed  out  elsewhere  in  this  booklet. 
Titanium  is  the  only  powerful  deoxidizer  which  can 
eliminate  serious  segregation,  and  give  a  clean,  uniform 
metal  throughout  the  ingot. 


38    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  17 — Sulphur  Print  of  a  typical  untreated  Open-Hearth  "A"  Rail. 
(Reduced  to  %  size.) 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     39 


FIG.  18 — Sulphur  Print  of  a  typical  Titanium  treated  Open-Hearth  "A"  Rail. 
(Reduced  to  %  size.) 


4o    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

OTHER   BENEFITS   OF   TITANIUM 

The  elimination  of  oxides  of  iron,  manganese,  silicon 
and  other  slag  occlusions  by  the  use  of  Titanium  will  give 
to  the  steel  the  maximum  physical  properties  possible 
from  its  component  elements. 

BLOW  HOLES,  SEAMS,  ETC. 

An  ingot  containing  gases,  oxides,  etc.,  will  solidify 
with  a  certain  amount  of  blow  holes  from  the  center  to 
the  surface,  especially  in  the  upper  portion.  These  blow 
holes  will  elongate  into  seams  during  the  rolling,  some 
showing  at  the  surface,  and  others  being  deeper  will  not 
be  seen  when  the  rails  are  inspected.  Some  processes 
have  recently  come  into  use  for  removing  surface  defects, 
including  seams  on  the  billet,  such  as  the  Deseaming 
Machine.  These  methods  of  improving  the  surface  of 
the  metal,  however,  do  not  reach  any  defects,  such  as 
seams  or  slag  occlusions,  below  the  surface  deeper  than 
the  cut  of  the  machine,  and  in  order  to  have  sound  metal 
all  through  the  rail,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  sound  ingot 
free  from  internal  blow  holes,  and  the  steel  must  be 
entirely  free  from  gases  and  oxides.  Titanium  eliminates 
these  gases  and  oxides  and  insures  sound  metal,  free 
from  blow  holes,  in  the  ingot. 

DENSENESS   OF  GRAIN,  ETC. 

Ingots  of  Titanium  Treated  Rail  Steel  have  a  closer  or 
denser  grain  than  those  of  untreated  steel  of  the  same 
chemical  composition,  due  to  their  more  rapid  solidifica- 
tion. The  grain  structure  of  the  finished  rail  is,  of  course, 
influenced  by  the  finishing  temperature  at  the  time  of 
rolling.  If  the  rails  are  finished  hot  the  grain  structure 
will  be  much  coarser  than  if  the  finishing  is  completed 
at  a  much  lower  temperature.  The  fineness  of  grain  of 
Titanium  Treated  Steel,  in  conjunction  with  its  freedom 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    41 

from  excessive  segregation,  slag  occlusions  and  seams, 
gives  a  steel  which  resists  abrasive  wear  much  more  than 
a  steel  of  the  same  hardness  with  a  coarser  grain  and 
containing  minute  oxides  or  slag  occlusions. 

The  absence  of  seams  and  serious  segregation  and  the 
cleanliness  and  close  grained  structure  in  Titanium 
Treated  Rails  naturally  insure  a  minimum  of  rail  failures 
in  track  from  breakage,  split  heads,  broken  bases, 
battered  ends,  etc 

PIPING  OF   INGOT 

The  impression  that  Titanium  Treatment  results  in 
increased  piping  in  the  ingot,  and  also  rails,  has  spread 
among  some  railroad  engineers  not  entirely  familiar  with 
the  metallurgical  action  of  this  deoxidizer.  A  few  words 
of  explanation  may  therefore  be  desirable. 

Any  powerful  deoxidizer  which  when  added  to  steel 
tends  to  increase  the  denseness  or  solidity  of  the  ingot 
naturally  causes  the  shrinkage  cavity  formed  near  the 
top  of  the  ingot  during  solidification  to  be  larger  than 
such  a  cavity  would  be  in  an  ingot  with  a  more  spongy 
structure  and  full  of  small  blow  holes.  The  size  of  this 
cavity  is  not  important,  providing  it  can  be  held  close  to 
the  top  of  the  ingot,  and  therefore  eliminated  when  the 
9  per  cent  or  10  per  cent  discard  is  cropped  from  the 
"blooms."  The  depth  of  the  cavity,  however,  is  a  very 
important  feature,  and  this  is  influenced  to  a  great  extent 
by  the  temperature  at  which  the  steel  is  tapped  from 
the  furnace  and  also  by  the  silicon  content.  If  the  metal 
is  poured  at  a  moderate  or  normal  temperature,  the  cavity 
will  be  very  close  to  the  top  of  the  ingot  and  eliminated 
with  the  top  discard.  If,  however,  the  steel  is  poured  at 
a  very  high  temperature,  the  cavity  is  liable  to  take  the 
shape  of  an  inverted  cone,  the  point  extending  far  down 
into  the  ingot,  with  the  result  that  the  rails  from  the  top 
portion  of  the  ingot  are  piped.  This  is  true  of  both  plain 


42    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

and  Titanium  Treated  rail  steel  when  poured  in  ordinary 
molds,  that  is,  molds  without  "hot  tops"  or  other 
devices  to  prevent  piping. 

When  Rail  Steel  is  treated  with  o.io  Titanium  the 
silicon  content  in  the  finished  steel  should  be  from  .06 
to  .12 — preferably  about  .09  to  .10.  As  both  Titanium 
and  silicon  are  deoxidizers — a  content  of  more  than  .12 
silicon  is  unnecessary  and  will  only  increase  the  tendency 
to  piping. 

Among  melters  of  Open-Hearth  rail  steel,  who  were  not 
very  familiar  with  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium,  there  was  at 
first  a  tendency  to  tap  the  steel,  to  be  treated  with 
Titanium,  at  a  high  temperature,  on  account  of  the  steel 
having  to  dissolve  the  Titanium  in  the  ladle,  and  also 
being  held  a  few  minutes  before  pouring.  This  was 
unnecessary  and  undesirable  because  the  oxidation  of 
Titanium  is  an  exothermic  or  heat  producing  reaction 
which  raises  the  temperature  of  the  steel  in  the  ladle. 
The  combination,  therefore,  of  over-heating  the  metal 
and  the  oxidation  of  Titanium  necessarily  results  in  a 
tendency  to  develop  deep  shrinkage  cavities  in  the  ingots. 
Melters  who  have  used  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  regu- 
larly have  now  learned  that  steel  to  be  treated  with 
Titanium  should  be  tapped  at  normal  temperatures  as 
usual  and  they  have,  therefore,  overcome  the  abnormal 
piping  in  the  ingot  which  was  at  first  experienced. 

RAIL   DATA 

Data  in  reference  to  a  large  number  of  comparative 
service  tests,  both  as  to  rail  wear  and  rail  breakage  has 
been  compiled  for  this  Company,  most  of  the  work 
having  been  done  by  R.  W.  Hunt  &  Co.  or  by  the  engi- 
neering departments  of  railroads  for  which  Titanium 
Treated  Rails  have  been  rolled. 

In  addition  to  this  work  there  has  been  examined  in 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    43 

this  Company's  physical  and  chemical  laboratories  an 
enormous  number  of  samples  of  both  Titanium  Treated 
and  Standard  rail  steel. 

Where  rails  have  failed  in  service  on  various  lines 
samples  of  the  defective  rail  have  been  sent  to  our  labora- 
tories for  examination  and  in  a  number  of  instances  we 
have  been  able  to  positively  demonstrate  the  cause  of 
failure  for  the  benefit  of  railroad  officials. 

One  particularly  interesting  case  was  the  failure  of  a 
D-Rail  on  a  Southern  railroad  system.  It  so  happened 
that  a  three  foot  sample  of  an  A-Rail  from  this  same 
heat  of  Titanium  Treated  steel  had  been  previously 
sent  to  our  laboratories  for  examination — this  sample  is 
reported  on  page  n,  Bulletin  No.  5,  as  Heat  U. 

Reference  to  this  Bulletin  will  indicate  that  the  chemi- 
cal and  physical  properties  of  this  rail  were  excellent. 
The  sample  of  the  D-Rail  which  had  been  broken  in 
track  was  more  uniform  both  physically  and  chemically 
than  the  A-Rail  sample  previously  examined,  and  the 
conclusion  of  the  report  which  was  submitted  to  the 
chief  engineer  of  the  railroad  by  our  metallographist, 
was  as  follows : 

"No  defect  was  found  in  this  sample  which  would 
indicate  that  the  failure  was  due  to  any  fault  of  the  rail. 
On  the  whole  the  physical  properties  and  structure  of 
this  sample,  which  has  been  in  service,  seem  even  better 
than  those  of  the  new  rail  reported  in  the  bulletin,  but 
whatever  superiority  there  is,  is,  of  course,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  new  rail  was  an  A-Rail  while  the  other  was 
from  a  lower  position  in  the  ingot.  The  results  show  that 
this  sample  had  not  deteriorated  to  any  marked  extent 
from  having  been  in  service  and  it  seems  most  probable 
that  its  failure  was  due  to  some  external  injury." 

Service  of  this  nature  must  inevitably  be  of  benefit  to 
railroad  engineers  in  determining  the  causes  of  failure 
of  their  rails.  It  is  apparent  that  in  this  particular  case 


44    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


»0  10  30  »fO  SO  (,o  TO  80  <?0  100  110 


-lo 


head  with  web. 

Samples  showing  over  12%  segregation  between  same  points. 


FIG.  19 — Carbon  Segregation  Percentage  Diagram  as  per  Pennsylvania  Railroad  speci- 
fication. This  diagram  was  plotted  from  the  results  of  over  400  chemical 
analyses,  each  analysis  being  double  checked. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    45 

it  would  have  been  unfair  to  have  blamed  the  quality  of 
the  steel  for  the  failure  of  the  rail. 

It  is  because  of  the  impossibility  of  definitely  determin- 
ing the  cause  of  many  rail  failures  in  track  that  careful 
students  of  the  rail  problem  seriously  question  the  value 
of  such  statistics  as  those  presented  in  general  rail 
failure  reports. 

Literature  referring  specifically  to  the  question  of 
Rail  Steel  will  be  mailed  upon  request. 

On  account  of  limited  space  no  attempt  has  been  made 
to  include  data  in  this  booklet. 

METHOD    OF    USING    FERRO    CARBON-TITANIUM 
IN  RAIL  STEEL 

Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  is  the  last  addition  made  to 
the  steel  in  the  ladle  and  specifications  covering  its  use 
are  given  below: 

IN   BASIC   OPEN-HEARTH   STEEL  FOR   RAILS 

(i).  All  recarburizers  (except  small  additions  of  coal 
or  coke)  and  the  major  portion  of  deoxidizers,  except 
Titanium,  shall  be  added  to  the  steel  in  the  furnace 
before  tapping,  and  the  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  shall 
then  be  gradually  added  to  the  steel  in  the  ladle  as  the 
metal  flows  from  the  furnace.  (See  paragraph  3.) 

(2).  All  necessary  additions  to  the  steel  in  the  ladle, 
except  Titanium,  shall  then  be  added  as  quickly  as 
practicable  after  the  steel  begins  to  run  into  the  ladle. 

(3).  Immediately  thereafter  the  addition  of  Ferro 
Carbon-Titanium  shall  be  made,  adding  gradually  and 
completing  before  the  slag  begins  to  run. 

(4).  The  Titanium  addition  in  all  cases  shall  be  the 
last  one  made  to  the  steel. 

(5).  After  the  ladle  is  filled  it  shall  be  held  at  least 
eight  minutes  before  commencing  to  pour  the  steel  into 
the  ingot  molds. 


46    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 
IMPORTANT  RECOMMENDATIONS 

(Not  definitely  specified.) 

(A).  The  quantity  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  recom- 
mended for  use  in  rail  steel  of  usual  composition  is  such 
as  to  introduce  into  the  molten  metal  as  nearly  as  prac- 
ticable o.io  per  cent  metallic  titanium. 

(B).  It  will  be  of  advantage  to  both  the  railroad  and 
the  mill  if  the  Silicon  content  be  kept  as  near  o.  10  per  cent 
as  practicable.  We  suggest  as  limits  0.06  to  0.12  per  cent. 

(C).  The  use  of  aluminum  in  connection  with  Tita- 
nium rail  steel  is  unnecessary  for  all  normal  heats. 


Why  we  recommend  the  addition  of  recarburizer 
in  the  furnace  instead  of  in  the  ladle  in  the  manu- 
facture of  high  carbon  steel  for  rails. 

It  is  the  practice  in  many  steel  plants  to  add  molten 
recarburizer  in  the  ladle  instead  of  in  the  furnace.  We 
object  to  this  practice  for  the  following  reasons : 

When  the  recarburizer,  which  is  usually  molten  iron 
or  ferro  spiegel,  the  latter  carrying  from  1.50  to  1.75  of 
silicon  and  from  5  to  7  per  cent  of  manganese,  is  added 
gradually  in  the  ladle  during  the  tapping  of  the  furnace  the 
Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  is  shoveled  in  at  the  same  time. 

The  basic  reason  for  treating  steel  with  Ferro  Carbon- 
Titanium  is  to  complete  the  deoxidation  after  prelimi- 
nary deoxidation  has  been  effected  by  the  use  of  such 
inexpensive  deoxidizers  as  manganese  and  silicon.  The 
function  of  the  Titanium  is  to  remove  any  oxides  remain- 
ing in  the  steel  and  also  those  introduced  by  the  man- 
ganese or  silicon.  The  oxide  of  Titanium  produced  by 
the  oxidation  of  that  metal  will  also  flux  any  particles  of 
slag  in  the  steel  by  combining  with  them  and  lower- 
ing their  melting  point. 

It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  if  the  recarburizer  is 
added  to  the  steel  in  the  ladle  during  the  tapping  of  the 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    47 

furnace  and  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  is  introduced  at 
the  same  time  the  more  powerful  deoxidizer,  Titanium, 
will  perform  the  initial  deoxidation  which  should  be 
accomplished  by  the  less  expensive  recarburizing  iron 
or  molten  spiegel. 

Melters,  generally,  are  in  favor  of  adding  the  recar- 
burizer  in  the  ladle  as  this  practice  provides  a  more 
convenient  control  of  the  content  of  manganese  and 
silicon  in  the  final  product,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  practice  is  detrimental  to  the  quality  of  the 
finished  steel.  If  care  is  taken  to  start  digging  out  the 
tap-hole  when  the  addition  of  recarburizer  is  made  so 
that  the  steel  can  be  tapped  from  the  furnace  within 
seven  or  eight  minutes  after  the  recarburizer  has  been 
added,  it  will  be  found  that  there  will  be  little  greater 
loss  of  silicon  and  manganese  than  when  the  addition  of 
recarburizer  is  made  in  the  ladle  at  the  time  of  tapping. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  open-hearth  furnace, 
and  not  the  ladle,  is  the  proper  place  to  make  steel.  It 
must  be  appreciated  that  for  heats  varying  from  150,000 
to  200,000  pounds  an  addition  of  from  20,000  to  35,000 
pounds  of  metal  as  recarburizer  must  be  made,  also 
that  the  higher  temperature  of  the  furnace  compared 
with  that  in  the  ladle  necessarily  facilitates  the  chemical 
reactions  during  the  period  of  deoxidation. 

There  could  be  no  objection  to  the  addition  of  the 
recarburizer  in  the  ladle,  except  that  the  temperature 
would  be  less  than  in  the  furnace,  if  after  such  addition 
the  steel  was  poured  into  a  second  ladle  in  which  the 
addition  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  could  be  made  while 
the  steel  flowed  from  the  first  to  the  second  ladle. 

Although  the  above  explanation  seems  logical  of  itself 
it  was  found  necessary  to  make  a  demonstration  which 
would  prove  our  contention. 

During  the  past  year  there  were  made  at  one  of  the 
large  rail  mills  twenty-eight  heats  of  Basic  Open-Hearth 


48    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


Steel;  nine  of  these  heats  were  of  untreated  steel,  the 
recarburizer  being  added  in  the  ladle  and  no  Titanium 
being  used ;  ten  heats  with  the  recarburizer  added  in  the 
ladle  and  .10  Titanium  added  in  the  form  of  Ferro 
Carbon-Titanium  at  the  same  time  as  the  recarburizer, 
and  nine  heats  with  the  recarburizer  added  in  the  furnace, 
as  per  our  recommendations,  and  .10  Titanium  in  the 
form  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  added  in  the  ladle. 

To  all  of  these  samples  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
specifications  for  carbon  segregation  were  applied  with 
the  following  results : 

PLAIN    OPEN-HEARTH,  RECARBURIZER    IN    THE    LADLE 

ANALYSIS 


Heat  No. 

Ladle 

Head 

Web 

Per  Cent  Increase 

I 

.665 

.605 

.667 

10.2% 

2 

.649 

.640 

.652 

1.9% 

3 
4 

.685 
.685 

.636 
.607 

•774 
.683 

21-7% 
12.5% 

56%   of    the 
do   not     meet 

heats 
the 

6 

.750 
.620 

.730 

•544 

.767 
.632 

5-1% 

16.2% 

specifications. 

7 

.682 

-589 

.663 

12.6% 

8                 .665 

.613 

.632 

3.1% 

__?_._            -713 

.644 

•747 

16.0% 

RECARBURIZER    IN    LADLE    AND  .10    TITANIUM    IN    LADLE 


Heat  No. 

Ladle 

Head 

Web 

Per  Cent  Increase 

10 

.620 

•574 

•743 

29-5% 

II 

.655 

.618 

.783 

27-5% 

12 

.633 

.606 

.789 

30.2% 

r3 

•733 

.696 

.976 

40.2% 

70%   of  the    heats 

H 

•745 

•755 

.738 

Negative 

do    not     meet     the 

'5 

.620 

.583 

.731 

25-4% 

specifications. 

16 

.700 

.662 

.769 

16.1% 

17 

.635 

.617 

.625 

1.3% 

18 

.675 

.651 

I  .000 

53-6% 

'9 

.665 

.627 

.686 

9.4% 

RECARBURIZER    IN    FURNACE    AND  .10    TITANIUM    IN    LADLE 


Heat  No. 

Ladle 

Head 

Web         (Per  Cent  Increase 

20 

.620 

.586 

.629 

7-3% 

21 

.750 

.748 

.707 

Negative 

22 
23 

•73° 
.710 

•693 
.645 

.695 

.66c 

.3% 
l.i% 

All     heats     within 

24 

.645 

•  59°                •  589                Negative 

the  specifications. 

25 

.625 

.613                .619                   1.0% 

26 

•655 

.621               .670                 7-9% 

27 

.675 

.  677                .  643                Negative 

28 

•655 

.629 

.663                  5.4% 

The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    49 


After  the  regular  discard  of  9  per  cent,  including  that 
at  the  shear  and  hot  saw,  samples  were  taken  from  the 
top  of  the  A-Rail,  i.  e.,  at  a  point  immediately  following 
the  discard. 

These  figures  show  very  distinctly  the  advantage  of  add- 
ing the  recarburizer  in  the  furnace  instead  of  in  the  ladle 
and  it  is  our  belief  that  the  practice  is  preferable  in  steel 
making  whether  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  is  used  or  not. 

One  other  disadvantage  of  adding  Ferro  Carbon- 
Titanium  in  the  ladle  at  the  same  time  as  the  recarburizer 
is  that  a  heavy  slag  covers  the  recarburizing  iron  in  the 
ladle  from  which  it  is  poured.  As  it  is  the  usual  practice 
to  top  pour  the  recarburizer  the  tendency  of  this  slag 
is  to  flow  into  the  large  ladle  with  the  iron  and  in 
this  way  the  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  being  added  at 
the  same  time  becomes  covered  with  a  heavy  coating 
of  slag,  which  prevents  the  action  of  the  Titanium 
on  the  steel  and  thus  the  addition  of  the  Titanium  is 
practically  wasted. 

In  addition  to  the  number  of  heats  noted  above  we 
have  had  the  opportunity  of  making  a  similar  experiment 
at  another  plant  on  two  heats  of  steel.  Heat  "A"  was 
made  in  a  stationary  furnace,  the  recarburizer  being 
added  in  the  furnace  and  the  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium 
in  the  ladle,  while  heat  "B"  was  made  in  a  tilting 
furnace,  both  the  recarburizer  and  the  Ferro  Carbon- 
Titanium  being  added  in  the  ladle. 


1 

HEAT   A 

HEAT  B 

(Having 

recarburizer  add- 

(Having  recarburizer  and 

ed  in 

furn 

ace    and    .10 

.10    Titanium   added    in 

Titani 

um 

n  ladle. 

ladle.) 

Top 

Center 

Top 

Center 

Carbon  .743 

.650 

.690 

•937 

Phosphorus    .015 

.013 

.008 

.017 

Sulphur      .050 

.048 

•°39 

.072 

Here  again  the  advantage  of  adding  the  recarburizer 
in  the  furnace  and  the  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  the 
ladle  is  clearly  shown. 


50    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  20  —  HEAT  "A" —  Sulphur  print  of  "A"  rail  from  heat  which  was  recarburized  in 

the  furnace  and  properly  treated  with  titanium. 

(Reduced  to  %  size.) 


THE  SULPHUR  PRINTS  HEREWITH  SHOW  THE  POINTS  AT  WHICH  SAMPLES  WERE  TAKEN 
FOR  ANALYSES  OF  CARBON,  PHOSPHORUS  AND  SULPHUR  AND  THE  FOREGOING  SCHEDULE 
GIVES  THE  RESULTS  OF  THESE  DETERMINATIONS. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     5  i 


V     -937  *—          ^tp-r'  f 
'  .690 
.247 
35-8% 


FIG.  21  — HEAT  "B" — Sulphur  print  of  "A"  rail  from  heat  which  was  treated  with 
titanium,  but  recarburized  in  the  ladle. 

(Reduced  to  %  size.) 


SHEET  AND  PLATE  STEELS 

THIS  general  class  of  products  is  rolled  from  steel 
to  thicknesses  varying  from  about  one  inch  down 
to  very  thin  sheets  of  No.  39  gauge.    The  heavier 
gauges  are  used  for  boiler  plate,  fire  box  plate,  etc.,  while 
sheets  of  lighter  gauge  are  used  for  deep  stamping  and 
other  purposes  as  black  plate,  terne  plate,  galvanized  or 
tinned. 

The  steel  used  for  all  of  these  different  grades  of  plate 
or  sheet  is  made  in  approximately  the  same  way  with  a 
slight  variation  in  carbon  content,  either  in  acid  or  basic 
open-hearth  furnaces  or  in  Bessemer  converters,  the  last 
grade  being  used  generally  for  sheets  of  light  gauge  only. 

DEFECTS  IN  STEEL  FOR  SHEETS  AND  PLATES 

The  defects  in  this  grade  of  steel  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

First.    Those  due  to  the  quality  of  the  steel. 

Second.  Mechanical  defects,  such  as  roll  scale  caused 
by  poor  rolling. 

Third.    Defects  due  to  improper  annealing. 

Fourth.  Mechanical  defects  arising  from  careless 
immersion  of  the  sheets  in  the  bath  where  they  are  gal- 
vanized or  tinned,  or  due  to  inadequate  pickling  and 
washing  of  the  surfaces. 

As  we  are  dealing  with  the  quality  of  the  steel  it  is 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    53 


FIG.  22  —  Natural   size  photograph  of  a  black  sheet  showing  mill  scale  on  the  surface. 


FIG.  23 — Natural  size  photograph  of  a  tinned  sheet,  into  whose  surface  mill  scale 
had  been  rolled  (compare  with  Fig.  22). 


54        Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  24 —  Section  of  black  sheet  magnified    157  diameters,  showing  two  fragments  of  scale 
rolled  into  the  surface,  and  forming  indentations. 


FIG.  25 —  Section  of  sheet  shown  in  Fig.  22,  magnified  200  diameters,  showing  scale  adher- 
ing to  the  surface. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.         55 


FIG.  26  —  Section  of  sheet  shown  in  Fig.  23,  magnified   200  diameters,  showing  one  of  the 
hollows  formed  by  the  scale  in  the  surface,  but  now  filled  with  tin. 


FIG.  27  —  Natural  size  photograph  of  a  tinned  sheet,  showing  uncoated  spots  caused  by  scale 
not  removed  from  the  surface  by  pickling. 


56    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  28  —  Natural  size  photograph  of  tinned  sheet  showing  defective  surface. 


FIG.  29  —  Natural  size  photograph  of  another  tinned  sheet  with  a  defective  surface. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.         57 


FIG.  30  —  Section  through  one  of  the  spots  shown  on  Fig.  27,  magnified  200  diameters,  show- 
ing scale  on  the  surface  interrupting  the  tin  coating. 


FIG.  31  — Section  of  sheet  shown  in  Fig.  28,  magnified  200  diameters,  showing  uneven  tin 
coating  and  rough  steel  surface. 


FIG.  32  —  Section  of  sheet  shown   in  Fig.  29,  magnified  200  diameters,  showing  impurity  in 
the  tin,  causing  an  uneven  coating. 


58    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

only  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  second,  third  and 
fourth  classes  of  defects  can  be  corrected  by  careful 
operation  in  the  rolling  and  finishing  departments.  The 
use  of  a  pyrometer  and  frequent  microscopic  examination 
of  samples  will  enable  the  manufacturer  to  control  the 
annealing  of  the  steel,  and  the  latter  method  will  indicate 
very  often  that  a  good  quality  of  steel  has  been  seriously 
injured  by  improper  annealing. 

In  many  finishing  departments  the  defects  in  class  one 
are  considered  inevitable  as  it  is  necessary  for  these 
departments  to  make  the  best  possible  product  from 
the  steel  which  is  furnished  them  and  they  are  often 
forced  to  show  a  very  high  percentage  of  "  wasters "  and 
a  correspondingly  low  percentage  of  "prime"  sheets, 
due  to  conditions  for  which  the  finishing  departments 
are  in  no  way  responsible. 

The  specific  defects  which  fall  under  class  one  and 
which  are  due  to  the  presence  of  slags  and  oxides  in  the 
steel  are  laminations,  surface  defects,  etc.,  such  as  small 
slag  or  oxide  spots  and  blisters,  the  latter  occurring  more 
generally  in  galvanized  and  tinned  sheets.  In  galvanized 
sheets  another  defect,  which  is  very  often  encountered,  is 
that  called  "gray  coating"  where  the  spelter  has  not 
crystallized  in  large  spangles  because  of  a  pitted  surface 
on  the  sheet  caused  by  spongy  steel,  slags  or  oxides. 

Such  surface  defects  as  laminations  and  porosity 
usually  arise  from  blow  holes  being  too  near  the  surface 
of  the  ingots,  which  causes  them  to  break  through  during 
the  rolling,  producing  scabs  and  the  defect  commonly 
known  as  "snakes." 

Laminations  are  often  found  in  shearing  plates  and 
these  can  be  traced  to  blow  holes  which  were  not 
welded  in  the  preliminary  rolling  because  their  surfaces 
were  oxidized  or  coated  with  slag.  Frequently  the 
presence  of  such  slags  or  oxides  can  be  detected  without 
the  use  of  a  magnifying  glass. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    59 


FIG.  33— Natural  size    photograph  of    a  "gray  coating,"  showing  variat 
of  spangle  on  a  galvanized  sheet. 


ion   in  size 


FIG.  34  —  Section    of    galvanized    sheet   with  "  gray  coating,"   showing   uneven  steel 

surface  that  caused   the  small  spangle.     The  zinc  has  been 

blackened  in  this  case  by  ammonia. 


60    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

Blisters  on  sheets,  although  found  in  black  sheets,  are 
more  frequently  encountered  in  those  which  are  galvan- 
ized or  tinned.  Many  explanations  have  been  given  for 
their  formation  in  coating  sheets  with  spelter  or  tin.  The 
following  seems  to  be  the  most  rational.  If  the  steel  con- 
tains oxides,  such  as  those  of  iron  and  manganese,  these 
oxides  will  be  reduced  by  the  hydrogen  absorbed  by  the 
sheets  during  pickling,  the  formation  of  water  resulting 
as  per  the  following  equations  : 

a=  Fe  +HZO 


During  the  passage  of  the  sheet  through  the  bath  of 
spelter  or  tin  this  water  will  vaporize,  which  will  neces- 
sarily produce  blisters.  These  blisters  are  from  infini- 
tesimal size  up  to  one  inch  or  more  in  diameter. 

When  galvanized  or  tin  plated  sheets  are  subjected  to 
deep  stamping  or  sharp  bending,  the  coating  very  often 
cracks  or  peels  off.  This  is  caused  invariably  by  the  fact 
that  the  coating  has  been  deposited  on  an  oxidized  or  dirty 
surface. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  SHEET  AND  PLATE  STEEL 

Let  us  assume  that  the  steel  is  to  be  made  in  an  open- 
hearth  furnace  of  at  least  thirty-five  tons  capacity  and  that 
it  is  to  be  poured  into  open  top  molds,  which  are  to  be 
capped  after  the  steel  has  been  allowed  to  "rim  in." 

When  the  heat  of  steel  is  in  condition  the  furnace  is 
tapped  and  additions  of  ferrophosphorus,  which  will  be 
used  if  the  steel  is  to  be  rolled  into  light  gauge,  and  of 
80  per  cent  ferromanganese  are  added  in  the  ladle.  The 
practice  of  adding  the  80  per  cent  ferromanganese  in  the 
ladle  is  followed  by  the  average  mill  in  this  country  at  the 
present  time.  A  better  practice,  however,  is  to  add  the 
ferromanganese  in  the  furnace  just  before  tapping,  which 
will  diffuse  the  manganese  uniformly  and  eliminate  what 
are  commonly  called  "hard"  spots  on  the  sheets,  which 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    61 


FIG.  35  —  Natural    size   photograph  of    surface  of   a  tinned    sheet  in  which   slag  was 
found  below  the  defective  spots. 


FIG.  36 — Section  of  sheet  shown  in  Fig.  35,  magnified  200  diameters,  showing  large 
slag  enclosures  just  below  the  steel  surface. 


62    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  37  —  Natural  size  photograph  of  surface  of  a  tinned  sheet  having  large  blisters. 


FIG.  38  —  Natural  size  photograph  of  a  typical  blistered  tin  sheet. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.        63 


FIG.  39  —  Section  of  sheet  shown  in  Fig.  37,  magnified  200  diameters,  showing  layer 
of  slag  or  oxide  below  the  steel  surface  in  which  blisters  formed. 


FIG.  40  —  Section  through  one  of  the  blisters  shown  in  Fig.  38,  magnified  200  diam- 
eters, showing  traces  of  oxide  remaining  in  the  blister. 


t^ 


FIG.  41 — Section   through  one  of  the  blisters  shown  in  Fig.  38,  magnified   200  diameters, 
showing  traces  of  oxide  remaining  in  the  blister. 


64    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

are    due  to  lack  of  proper  distribution  of  this  element. 

If  the  steel  has  not  been  properly  worked  in  the 
furnace  and  the  slag  is  not  in  good  condition  at  the  time 
of  tapping  the  metal  will  act  sluggishly  in  the  molds  and 
will  rise.  A  steel  which  is  too  hot  when  tapped  from  the 
furnace  will  have  this  same  tendency  and  in  both  cases  the 
steel  will  not  "rim  in"  properly  in  the  molds,  which  will 
result  in  the  blow  holes  forming  about  J-inch  inside  the 
walls  of  the  ingots.  When  the  ingots  are  rolled  these  blow 
holes  will  be  elongated  and  forced  through  the  surface, 
producing  cracks,  scabs  and  laminations  on  the  sheet  bar. 

After  the  steel  has  been  tapped  into  the  ladle  and  the 
ferromanganese  added  the  manganese  will  act  upon  the 
iron  oxides  always  in  solution  in  steel  and  rob  them  of 
their  oxygen.  This  will  result  in  the  formation  of  man- 
ganese oxide,  as  per  the  following  equation : 

FeO  +  Mn  =  Fe  +  MnO 

A  considerable  proportion  of  this  manganese  oxide 
will  be  entrapped  in  the  steel  and  its  presence  is  respon- 
sible for  a  large  percentage  of  blisters. 

In  order  to  further  deoxidize  their  steel  and  to  keep  it 
from  rising  in  the  molds  certain  manufacturers  add  alu- 
minum in  the  ladle.  This  use  of  aluminum  is  the  source  of 
numerous  defects  in  sheets  and  plates.  The  aluminum  will 
oxidize,  being  transformed  into  alumina,  an  oxide  infusi- 
ble at  the  temperature  of  molten  steel  (alumina  melts  at 
2050°  C.  while  steel  is  usually  poured  at  about  1600°  C.). 

Reference  to  pages  84  to  105  will  show  that  alumina 
may  be  identified  in  steel  and  that  it  segregates  in  streaks 
or  agglomerations. 

If  from  two  and  one-half  to  four  pounds  of  Ferro  Car- 
bon-Titanium per  ton  of  steel  is  substituted  for  aluminum 
and  the  addition  of  the  former  is  made  as  the  last  in 
the  ladle  and  care  is  taken  to  see  that  all  the  Titanium 
is  added  before  the  slag  begins  to  flow  from  the  furnace, 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    65 

the   Titanium  will   by  oxidation   reduce   not  only   iron 
oxides  but  also  the  oxides  of  manganese  as  follows : 

2FeO+Ti  =  2Fe  +TiOz 
2MnO+Ti  =  2Mn+TiOz 

Titanic  Oxide,  the  product  of  oxidation  of  Titanium, 
has  a  melting  point  of  approximately  1700°  C.  This 
oxide  will  combine  immediately  with  particles  of  slag 
entrapped  in  the  steel  and  the  combination  having  a 
lower  fusibility  than  the  original  slag  will  rise  to  the  top 
of  the  ladle,  thus  freeing  the  steel  from  entrapped  slags  and 
oxides.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  Titanium  acts  not 
only  as  a  deoxidizer  but  as  a  thorough  scavenger  as  well. 

In  order  that  this  scavenging  action  of  titanic  oxide 
may  be  thorough  the  steel  must  be  held  in  the  ladle  for 
from  six  to  eight  minutes,  which  will  give  sufficient  time 
for  freeing  it  from  entrapped  slags. 

It  must  be  constantly  remembered,  however,  that 
Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  is  only  a  deoxidizer  and  scaven- 
ger and  that  it  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  produce  steel  of 
first  quality  from  heats  which  have  not  been  properly 
made  in  the  furnace  and  which  are  tapped  possibly  be- 
cause the  chemical  analysis  is  satisfactory  and  because 
the  holding  of  such  a  heat  in  the  furnace  sufficiently  long 
to  put  it  in  good  shape  for  tapping  would  diminish  the 
production  of  the  department.  In  other  words,  the  steel 
must  be  well  made  in  the  furnace  in  any  event. 

THE  ACTION   OF  THE   STEEL   IN  THE   MOLDS 

Steel  for  sheets  is  both  top  and  bottom  poured.  In 
most  of  the  large  mills  it  is  top  poured  and  allowed  to 
"rim  in"  in  the  molds,  which  are  over  14"  x  14"  section. 
It  would  be  impossible  for  the  steel  to  "rim  in"  if  top 
poured  in  smaller  molds,  probably  on  account  of  the 
thinness  of  the  walls  of  the  molds,  so  that  soft  steel 
when  top  poured  in  small  molds  has  to  be  "  killed." 


66    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  42 —  6,000  pound  ingot,  18x22  inches, 
with  blow  holes  near  surface. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    67 


FIG.  43  —  Fracture  of  ingot  14x30  inches. 


s> 
** 


FIG.  44  —  Polished  section  of  ingot  14x30  inches. 


FIG.  45  —  Sulphur  print  of  ingot  14x30  inches. 


68    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

This  is  usually  done  by  an  addition  of  aluminum  shot 
during  the  pouring  of  the  steel  into  the  molds. 

If,  as  is  done  in  some  mills,  the  steel  is  bottom  poured 
into  small  ingots  on  a  plate  it  will  "rim  in"  satisfactorily. 

In  "rimming  in"  steel  it  is  essential  that  the  blow 
holes  be  forced  as  far  toward  the  center  of  the  ingot  as  is 
possible  and  if  the  steel  "rims  in"  properly  the  blow 
holes  will  be  found  at  least  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
from  the  walls  of  the  ingot. 

If  blow  holes  are  too  near  the  surface,  as  in  Fig.  42, 
they  will  break  through  during  the  blooming,  producing 
bars  which  will  show  scabs  and  sheets  or  plates  having 
laminations  or  other  surface  defects. 

Fig.  43  is  a  cross  section  of  an  ingot  14"  x  30"  and 
shows  the  fracture  where  the  ingot  was  broken. 

Fig.  44  is  a  reproduction  of  a  photograph  of  a  polished 
cross  section  2"  from  the  fracture  shown  in  Fig.  43,  and 
Fig.  45  shows  a  sulphur  print  made  from  this  section.  The 
line  of  blow  holes  shown  in  Fig.  44  is  3  J"  inside  the  walls 
of  the  ingot.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  3^"  skin 
there  is  no  segregation  although  a  little  is  visible  in  the 
center  of  the  ingot,  which  was  the  last  part  to  solidify. 

If  these  blow  holes  are  clean,  being  free  from  slags 
and  oxides,  they  will  weld  during  the  blooming  of  the 
ingots  and  cause  no  further  trouble. 


Probably  in  no  other  grades  of  steel,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  wire,  are  defects  so  apparent  as  in  sheets  or 
plates.  On  account  of  the  great  surface  area  of  these 
products  any  internal  defects  are  forced  to  or  near  the 
surface  by  repeated  rolling.  To  scrap  a  large  percentage 
of  the  steel  from  an  ingot  in  order  to  obtain  metal  that 
will  make  good  sheet  or  to  try  to  coat  defective  steel 
with  tin  or  spelter  are  expensive  practices. 

Both  can  be  obviated  by  the  proper  use  of  Ferro 
Carbon-Titanium  in  making  the  steel. 


WIRE  STEELS 

MANUFACTURE 

Two  general  grades  of  steel  are  produced  for  wire 
making,  i.  e.,  High  and  Low  Carbon.  From 
the  former  such  articles  as  springs,  rope  and 
piano  wire  are  made,  while  the  latter  is  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  wire  products,  nails,  spikes,  screws,  rivets, 
tacks,  etc. 

In  the  manufacture  of  both  grades  the  ingots  are  cast 
in  open  top  molds  and  are  rolled  into  billets,  then  into 
bars  and  rods  or  into  rods  direct  from  the  billets  in  the 
case  of  heavy  gauge  wire. 

The  drawing  of  the  wire,  which  follows,  is  done  on  a 
draw -bench  consisting  of  a  die  and  a  power  driven  reel 
for  pulling  the  wire  through  the  die.  Drawing  may  be 
done  by  the  wet  or  dry  process,  the  latter  on  sizes  down 
to  No.  1 8 — soapstone  or  tallow  being  used  as  a  lubricant 
to  reduce  friction  to  a  minimum. 

After  various  reductions  in  diameter  the  steel  will 
become  hard  and  must  be  annealed.  It  is  then  pickled 
and  washed  to  remove  the  scale  before  it  is  drawn  any 
further. 

If  a  copper  finish  is  required  it  is  secured  by  immersing 
the  coil  in  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  but  if  the  wire 
is  to  be  galvanized  it  is  pickled  and  cleaned  and  then 
passed  first  through  a  fluxing  bath  and  then  through  a 


jo    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

bath  of  spelter.    The  excess  spelter  is  removed  by  passing 
the  wire  through  asbestos  wipers. 

MANUFACTURE    OF    THE    STEEL—  LOW   CARBON 
OPEN-HEARTH   STEEL   FOR  WIRE 

For  discussion  it  is  assumed  that  the  steel  is  to  be  made 
in  an  Open-Hearth  Furnace  of  at  least  thirty-five  tons 
capacity,  teemed  into  a  receiving  ladle  and  then  into 
open  topped  molds,  which  are  capped  after  the  steel  has 
been  allowed  to  "rim  in." 

When  the  heat  of  steel  is  in  condition  the  furnace  is 
tapped,  and  an  addition  of  80  per  cent  ferromanganese 
is  made  in  the  ladle.  While  the  general  practice  is  to 
add  the  ferromanganese  in  the  ladle  it  is  preferable  that 
it  be  added  in  the  furnace  just  before  tapping,  as  this 
latter  practice  will  prevent  the  unequal  distribution  of 
manganese,  which  causes  the  defects  commonly  termed 
"hard  spots." 

The  manganese,  no  matter  how  added,  will  rob  the 
iron  oxides  of  their  oxygen  giving  manganese  oxide,  as 
per  the  following  equation  : 


A  part  of  this  manganese  oxide  will  rise  to  the  slag  but 
a  certain  amount  will  inevitably  remain  in  the  steel  and 
its  presence  will  account  for  a  large  percentage  of  surface 
defects  on  the  finished  wire. 

At  many  mills  it  is  the  practice  to  add  aluminum,  as  a 
deoxidizer,  in  the  ladle.  Such  an  addition  is  the  cause 
of  numerous  defects  in  Wire  Steels.  The  aluminum,  by 
oxidation,  is  transformed  into  alumina,  an  oxide  infusible 
at  the  temperature  of  molten  steel  (alumina  melts  at 
2050°  C.  while  steel  is  usually  poured  at  about  1600°  C.). 

If  instead  of  aluminum  from  two  and  one-half  to  four 
pounds  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  per  ton  of  steel  were 
added  to  the  ladle  after  all  other  additions  and  before  the 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    71 

slag  begins  to  flow  from  the  furnace  the  Titanium,  like  the 
aluminum,  will  by  its  oxidation  reduce  the  oxides  of 
both  manganese  and  iron  as  per  the  following  formulae: 

2FeO+Ti  =  2Fe  +TiOa 
2Mn6+Ti-2Mn+TiO, 

Unlike  aluminum,  however,  Titanic  Oxide,  the  product 
of  oxidation  of  Titanium,  has  a  melting  point  only 
slightly  higher  than  that  of  molten  steel  (The  Bureau  of 
Standards  has  determined  the  melting  point  of  Rutile 
containing  99.22  TiO2  to  be  1700°  C.).  This  Titanic 
Oxide  acting  as  a  flux  will  combine  immediately  with 
particles  of  slag  always  in  suspension  in  molten  steel  and 
such  new  combinations  having  a  lower  melting  point 
will  rise  to  the  top  of  the  ladle  more  readily  than  the 
initial  slag  before  the  addition  of  Titanium.  In  this 
way  Titanium  acts  not  only  as  a  deoxidizer  but  also  as 
a  cleanser  and  scavenger. 

After  the  addition  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  has  been 
completed  the  steel  should  be  held  in  the  ladle  for  at 
least  eight  minutes  before  the  first  ingot  is  poured  to 
allow  sufficient  time  for  the  slags,  rendered  more  fusible 
by  combination  with  Titanic  Oxide,  to  rise  to  the  surface. 

A  great  majority  of  the  soft  wire  steel  made  in  this 
country  is  cast  in  open  top  molds  which  are  capped  after 
being  filled.  These  molds  are  18"  x  18"  or  over. 

Steel  with  practically  no  silicon  content  will  "rim  in" 
in  the  molds  and  in  so  doing  build  a  heavy  skin  forcing 
the  blow  holes  toward  the  center  of  the  ingot. 

If  the  surfaces  of  these  blow  holes  are  free  from  oxides 
and  slags  they  will  weld  during  the  blooming  of  the  ingots. 
If,  however,  the  blow  holes  are  too  near  the  surface, 
which  would  be  the  case  if  the  steel  was  not  in  condition 
when  tapped,  or  if  it  was  poured  into  the  molds  when 
too  hot  and  if,  in  such  cases,  the  steel  was  dirty  from 
slag  and  oxide  inclusions,  bars  covered  with  scale  and 


72    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


^    *   ~  *  i   • , 

>;  »£:•*# 


/'  *. 


K.5;..     ^v      - 

"  " 


FIG.  46  —  Longitudinal  section  of  wire  rod  of  untreated  steel,  magnified  100 
diameters,  showing  an  elongated  slag  fibre. 


^Wlsr 


FIG.  47  —  Section   at   center  of  wire  rod  of    untreated  steel  supposed  to  be  of  same 

carbon  content  as  Fig.  46,  showing  much  higher  carbon  at  this  point  due 

to  segregation.    Etched  like  Fig.  46,  and  magnified  100  diameters. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    73 


FIG.  48  —  Section  at  center  of  wire  rod  of  titanium  treated  steel  of  same  carbon  con- 
tent as  rods  shown  in  Figs.  46  and  47,  and  etched  and  magnified  in  the 
same  way.    This  steel  is  clean  and  uniform  in  composition. 


74    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

metal  which  will  sliver  in  the  rods  will  result.  Heavy 
scale  on  the  rods  is  an  indication  of  spongy  steel. 

At  some  of  the  smaller  rolling  mills  it  is  the  practice  to 
cast  small  ingots  12"  x  12"  or  less  which  are  top  poured. 
Under  these  conditions  the  steel  will  not  "rim  in"  in  the 
molds  and  it  is  usually  "killed"  with  aluminum,  added 
in  the  form  of  shot  during  teeming  in  the  molds.  When 
this  same  grade  of  steel  is  bottom  poured  into  small 
sized  ingots  on  a  plate,  many  manufacturers  prefer  to 
"kill"  the  steel  with  an  addition  of  aluminum  in  the 
center  of  the  plate. 

In  both  cases  where  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  is  used 
the  practice  is  the  same  as  if  the  steel  "rimmed  in." 

HIGH  CARBON  OPEN-HEARTH  WIRE   STEEL 

Assume  that  the  steel  is  in  condition  to  be  tapped  from 
the  furnace  and  that  if  possible  the  addition  of  80  per 
cent  ferromanganese  has  been  made  in  the  furnace  just 
before  tapping  or  has  been  added  in  the  stream  of  metal 
as  it  flows  into  the  ladle.  This  addition  is  followed 
immediately  by  an  addition  of  50  per  cent  ferrosilicon. 
If  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  is  to  be  used  from  six  to 
eight  pounds  per  ton  of  steel  are  added,  following  the 
ferrosilicon,  care  being  taken  that  all  the  Titanium  is 
in  the  ladle  before  the  slag  begins  to  flow.  The  steel  is 
held  for  from  six  to  eight  minutes  to  give  time  for  the 
slags,  rendered  more  fusible  by  the  combination  with 
titanic  oxide,  to  rise  to  the  surface. 

This  grade  of  steel  usually  has  a  high  manganese  con- 
tent in  addition  to  its  content  of  silicon  and  when  poured 
either  into  top  poured  molds  or  bottom  poured  plated 
molds  it  will  lay  "dead."  A  pipe  or  shrinkage  cavity 
will  be  found  and  discarded. 

Rods  and  Wire  of  High  Carbon  Steel  are  subject  to 
all  the  defects  of  Low  Carbon  Steel  as  well  as  to  the 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    75 


FIG.  49 —  Section  of  broken  wire  spring  showing  uneven  composition  due  to  segrega- 
tion and  coarse  structure  due  to  too  hot  annealing,  magnified  100  diameters. 


FIG.  50  —  Section  of  wire  spring  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  49,  but  having  a  finer  and 
more  uniform  structure.     Magnified  100  diameters. 


j6    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

very  serious  defect  of  segregation.  Segregation  is  respon- 
sible for  the  extreme  variation  of  steel  from  different 
parts  of  the  ingot — that  from  the  lower  part  may  be  soft 
and  ductile  while  from  the  upper  part  of  the  same  ingot 
the  wire  may  be  hard  and  brittle. 

The  user  of  such  wire  is  assured  that  the  ladle  analysis 
of  the  heat  is  as  was  specified  but  if  he  would  analyze 
for  carbon  in  the  two  samples  of  wire  he  would  often 
find  a  difference  of  over  30  per  cent.  This  would  also 
be  true  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 

In  this  grade  of  steel  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium,  acting 
as  a  deoxidizer  and  scavenger,  will  make  possible  the 
production  of  a  uniform  steel  throughout  the  ingot,  from 
which  can  be  drawn  wire  which  will  be  clean  and  of 
uniform  composition,  will  not  scale  or  sliver,  to  which 
spelter  will  cling  tenaciously  and  which  will  be  almost 
free  from  any  segregation  whatever. 

BESSEMER   STEEL  FOR   WIRE 

In  general  what  has  been  written  above  will  apply  for 
Bessemer  Wire  Steel — either  High  or  Low  Carbon.  As 
it  is  not  possible  to  hold  the  steel  so  long  in  the  ladle  in 
this  process  we  recommend  the  use  of  "C"  and  "D" 
sizes  in  Cans — the  cans  serving  to  carry  the  Titanium 
through  the  heavy  Bessemer  slag  so  that  when  the  fine 
material  is  released  it  will  not  become  coated  with  slag 
and  thus  be  wasted. 

The  finer  sized  material  dissolves  more  rapidly  than 
our  Standard  Medium,  "E"  or  "F"  sizes  and  as  only 
from  three  to  four  minutes  elapse  between  the  addition 
of  the  Titanium  and  the  pouring  of  the  first  mold  we 
consider  the  use  of  the  former  much  more  efficient  and 
dependable  in  Converter  Practice. 

The  same  quantities  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  are 
recommended  for  Bessemer  as  for  Open  Hearth  Wire 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    77 


FIG.  51  —  Cross-section    of     galvanized    wire,    magnified   200   diameters    and    etched 
with  picric  acid,  showing  fairly  clean  and  well  annealed  steel.     Note  the  smooth- 
ness of  the  contact  surface  between  the  wire  and  the  zinc-iron  alloy. 


FIG.  52 —  Cross-section  of  No.   n    gauge    galvanized   wire,    magnified  200  diameters 

and  etched  with  picric  acid,  showing  a  very  light  coating,  with 

fairly  clean  and  well  annealed  steel. 


78    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  53  —  Cross-section  of  No.  n    gauge    galvanized    wire,  magnified    200   diameters 

and  etched  with  picric  acid,  showing  a  thick  coating.     On  the  surface  of  the  wire 

some  scale  is  shown,  which  was  not  removed  by  the  picking,  and  some  dross 

is  also  shown  in  the  zinc  coating.     The  steel  was  not  well  annealed. 


FIG.  54  —  Cross-section  of  No.   n    gauge    galvanized  wire,  magnified  200  diameters 

and  etched  with  picric  acid,  showing  a  thick  coating.     The  wire  was  clean 

and  smooth  before  it  was  coated,  as  is  shown  at  the  boundary 

between  the  steel  and  the  zinc-iron   alloy. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    79 


FIG.  55  —  Cross-section  of  a  high-carbon   steel  wire  rod,  magnified  200  diameters  and 

unetched,  the  inclusions  of  alumina  showing  clearly  that 

aluminum  was  used  in  treating  this  steel. 


FIG.  56  —  Longitudinal    section  of  a  low-carbon  and  low-manganese  steel    wire  rod, 

magnified  200  diameters  and  unetched,  showing  a  bad  streak  of  slag 

(silicate)  inclusions.     Numerous  cracks  had  started  along 

other  streaks  like  this  in  this  sample. 


8o    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

Steel — viz.,  two  and  one-half  pounds  to  four  pounds  per 
ton  of  Low  Carbon  and  six  pounds  to  eight  pounds  per 
ton  for  High. 

SUMMARY— WIRE   STEELS 

While  there  are  numerous  defects  in  wire,  which  are 
occasioned  by  other  causes  than  defective  steel,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  those  for  which  the  quality  of  the  steel  is 
responsible  are  numerous  and  important — such  as  scale 
and  slivers  on  the  surface,  failure  of  spelter  to  adhere  tena- 
ciously in  Low  Carbon  Wire  and  as  well  as  these  lack  of 
uniformity  due  to  excessive  segregation  in  High  Carbon. 

Another  very  annoying  trouble  in  wire  drawing  is  the 
cutting  of  the  dies,  which  will  at  times  show  an  increase 
in  diameter  during  the  running  of  a  single  bundle.  A 
microscopic  examination  of  the  wire  causing  this  diffi- 
culty will  usually  indicate  a  dirty  steel  containing  slags, 
silicates,  alumina  and  other  non-metallic  substances. 

The  deoxidizing  and  cleansing  effects  of  Ferro  Carbon- 
Titanium,  if  used  as  recommended,  will,  provided  always 
that  the  steel  is  properly  made  in  the  Furnace,  eliminate 
these  defects  or  reduce  them  to  an  inconsequential 
minimum. 


PIPE  OR  TUBE 

STEEL  for  pipe  is  made  by  both  the  Bessemer  and 
Open  Hearth  processes.  Pipes  or  tubes  are  made 
either  by  welding  or  by  the  seamless  tube  process. 

Welded  pipes  are  of  two  varieties,  butt  or  lap  welded. 
Butt  welded  pipes  are  made  from  skelp,  heated  to  a 
welding  temperature,  by  pulling  it  through  a  bell-shaped 
die,  which  forms  the  edges  of  the  plate  and  welds  them 
together.  Lap  welded  pipe  is  made  from  heated  skelp, 
the  edges  of  which  are  straightened,  and  then  passed 
through  bending  rolls.  This  process  forms  the  skelp 
into  the  shape  of  a  pipe.  It  is  then  reheated  to  a  welding 
temperature  and  passed  through  a  pair  of  welding  rolls, 
between  which  is  fixed  a  mandrel  on  the  end  of  a  long  rod. 

Seamless  tube  is  being  more  and  more  generally  used 
for  heavy  pressure  pipe.  The  manufacture  of  this 
variety,  however,  causes  the  maker  much  trouble. 

Seamless  tubes  are  manufactured  from  solid  steel 
billets.  While  there  are  many  different  processes  for  its 
manufacture,  the  usual  method  is  to  heat  the  billet  and  then 
pass  it  through  a  piercing  machine  over  a  mandrel,  which 
pierces  a  hole  through  the  center  of  the  billet.  The  tube 
is  then  passed  through  a  series  of  rolls  and  over  mandrels 
until  the  required  diameter  and  thickness  are  obtained. 

Defects  mentioned  for  sheet  will  be  found  in  pipe  as 
the  making  of  the  skelp  can  be  likened  to  the  manufacture 


8  2    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


B 


FIG.  57  —  Section  of  swollen  boiler  tube.    Normal  outside  diameter  =  4  inches.    Outside 
diameter  from  A  to  6  =  4^  inches. 

of  sheet  bar.  Frequently  the  presence  of  oxides  and 
slags  in  the  steel  will  prevent  the  welding  of  the  edges  at 
certain  points  resulting  in  defective  pipe.  Oxides  or  slag 
inclusions  in  the  billets  used  in  the  manufacture  of  seam- 
less tubes  will  be  detected,  usually  during  the  piercing  of 
the  billets,  as  laminations,  and  such  tube  will  be  rejected. 
In  the  treatment  of  steel  for  skelp  or  for  billets  for 
seamless  tubing,  an  addition  of  two  and  one-half  pounds 
to  four  pounds  of  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  per  ton  of 
steel  will,  as  already  explained  in  the  discussion  of  the 
manufacture  of  sheet  steel,  remove  the  defects  noted 
above.  For  the  manufacture  of  steel  see  pages  60  to  68. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     83 


FIG.  58  —  Section  of   boiler  tube  at  swollen  part,  B,  showing  streaked   structure   and 
nonmetallic  inclusions,  magnified  50  diameters. 


J  ,- 


..       : 


FIG.  59  —  Section  of  boiler  tube  at  A,  showing  cleanness  and  homogeneous 
structure,  magnified  50  diameters. 


A    STUDY   OF   ALUMINA 
IN    STEEL 

A  reprint  of  an  article  by   George  F.  Corns  to  ck  appearing  in  "Metal- 
lurgical and  Chemical  Engineering"  December  ist,  1915. 

ONE  reason  for  the  value  of  the  microscope  in  the 
examination  of  steel  is  its  ability  to  give  evidence 
as  to  the  cleanness  of  the  metal,  or  as  to  the 
number  and  character  of  the  non-metallic  inclusions 
embedded  in  it.  By  preparing  a  surface  with  a  sufficiently 
perfect  polish,  not  only  the  number  of  inclusions  per 
given  area  can  be  ascertained,  but  their  shape,  color, 
and  arrangement  through  the  metal  can  also  be  plainly 
seen  if  lenses  of  good  quality  and  fairly  high  magnifying 
power  are  used.  After  examination  of  many  samples 
of  steel  with  especial  regard  to  the  non-metallic  inclu- 
sions, experience  is  acquired  by  which  these  inclu- 
sions may  be  classified  into  several  different  types 
based  on  their  appearance  in  a  well-polished,  unetched 
steel  surface. 

The  sulphides  are  the  most  common  inclusions  in 
steel,  and  their  appearance  is  well  known  to  all  metallo- 
graphers.  Inclusions  of  this  type  used  to  be  known  as 
"manganese  sulphide/'  but  investigations  made  in  recent 
years  have  shown  that  iron  sulphide  also  enters  into 
their  composition  to  a  considerable  and  variable  extent. 
Next  to  the  sulphides,  the  most  common  inclusions  are 
the  silicates,  or  true  slag  inclusions.  These  are  always 
darker  than  the  sulphides,  and  usually  of  more  irregular 
form.  To  some  writers,  all  inclusions  except  sulphides 
are  "slag,"  and  others  do  not  even  make  this  exception, 
calling  everything  "slag"  in  a  polished  section  that  is 
not  metal.  From  evidence  obtained  recently  in  these 
laboratories,  however,  it  has  seemed  justifiable  to  dif- 
ferentiate between  slag  or  silicate  inclusions  and  those 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     85 

consisting  wholly  or  chiefly  of  titanium  nitride,  or  of 
alumina,  respectively.  The  titanium  nitride  inclusions 
were  described  in  the  "Metallurgical  and  Chemical 
Engineering"  for  September,  1914,  Vol.  XII,  page  577, 
and  are  easily  distinguished  from  all  other  inclusions  in 
steel  by  their  pink  color.  In  this  report  is  presented  the 
evidence  on  which  the  identification  of  alumina  in  steel 
has  been  based. 

A  few  years  ago  an  ingot  of  good  steel  was  treated,  in 
the  mold,  with  a  large  excess  of  aluminum,  and  the  bars 
forged  from  this  ingot  were  very  seamy.  Fig.  60  (on 
page  91)  shows  the  appearance  of  the  inclusions  in  this 
steel,  which  must  evidently  be  alumina,  since  nothing 
but  this  was  added  to  the  molten  metal.  These  inclu- 
sions are  in  the  form  of  small  rounded  spots,  arranged 
close  together  in  an  elongated  streak.  They  are  of  a 
very  dark  bluish-gray  color,  when  examined  with  the 
white  light  of  an  electric  arc,  appearing  black  unless 
highly  magnified,  and  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
polish  them  without  forming  little  pits  around  each 
inclusion.  If  the  polishing  is  done  very  carefully, 
these  pits  may  be  kept  very  small;  but  with  certain 
methods  of  polishing  the  pits  are  made  so  large  that 
the  original  inclusions  cannot  be  seen  at  all.  Titanium 
nitride  inclusions  will  form  pits  in  the  same  way  if 
poorly  polished.  If  the  specimen  is  not  rotated  con- 
stantly during  the  final  polishing,  the  pits  take  the  form 
of  short  scratches,  and  each  inclusion  will  have  a  little 
tail,  like  a  comet.  It  will  be  noticed  in  Fig.  60  that 
although  this  shows  a  longitudinal  view  of  a  bar, 
the  individual  inclusions  have  not  been  elongated  by 
the  forging  at  all,  but  merely  the  group  as  a  whole 
has  been  drawn  out  into  a  streak.  Compare  this 
with  Fig.  61,  which  shows  some  silicates  in  the  web 
of  a  rail,  and  a  great  difference  will  be  apparent,  for 
the  silicates  have  been  elongated  even  by  the  cross-wise 


86    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

pressure  of  the  rolls  forming  the  web,  while  the  drawing 
effect  of  the  forging  did  not  elongate  the  alumina  par- 
ticles even  in  the  same  direction  that  the  bar  was  drawn 
out. 

The  difference  between  inclusions  of  alumina  and 
ordinary  slag  or  silicates  in  steel  may  then  be  summarized 
as  follows : 

(i)  Silicate  inclusions  will  generally  take  a  fairly 
smooth  polish  in  a  section  prepared  for  microscopic 
examination,  while  alumina  is  very  hard  to  polish  with- 
out pitting.  (2)  Silicate  inclusions  are  always  elongated 
in  the  direction  of  rolling  or  forging,  while  alumina 
particles  are  not  (the  groups  of  particles  are,  of  course, 
elongated,  but  not  the  particles  themselves).  (3)  Silicate 
inclusions  are  often  found  of  quite  large  size  (as  well  as 
very  small),  while  particles  of  alumina  are  always 
small,  and  do  not  seem  to  coalesce  into  larger  bodies 
even  when  closely  grouped  together.  These  character- 
istics of  the  alumina  inclusions  agree  with  what  is  known 
of  the  properties  of  alumina.  Its  great  hardness  and 
brittleness  would  account  for  the  pitting  effect;  its 
infusibility  would  account  for  the  small  size  of  the  par- 
ticles and  the  tendency  not  to  coalesce;  and  both  of 
these  properties  together  would  account  for  the  particles 
not  being  elongated  by  forging  or  rolling  of  the  steel  in 
which  they  are  embedded. 

Inclusions  having  all  the  characteristics  of  those  seen 
in  steel  known  to  contain  alumina  have  been  found  in 
many  samples  of  steel  examined  in  the  course  of  our 
work  here,  but  it  could  not  be  stated  positively  that  any 
of  these  were  alumina,  until  a  method  was  found  for 
determining  this  substance  quantitively  by  chemical 
analysis.  Eventually  such  a  method  was  found,  not 
only  in  our  laboratory,  but  also  independently  by  Mr. 
F.  O.  Kichline,  Chemist  at  the  Saucon  Plant,  Bethlehem 
Steel  Co.  (published  in  the  September,  1915,  issue  of  the 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     87 

"Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry") 
and  the  results  from  it  have  been  very  interesting.  All 
samples  in  which  more  than  the  merest  trace  of  alumina 
was  found  by  analysis  were  seen  to  contain  the  typical 
inclusions  as  described  above,  and  those  in  which 
alumina  was  not  found  by  analysis,  did  not  contain 
these  inclusions.  Furthermore,  those  in  which  more 
alumina  was  found  by  analysis  contained  more  of  these 
inclusions  than  those  in  which  only  a  very  little  was 
found.  These  facts  have  been  considered  as  a  good 
confirmation  of  the  theory  that  the  typical  small  inclu- 
sions, as  described  above,  found  in  so  many  commercial 
steels,  are  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  alumina.  Of  course  the 
purity  of  the  alumina  in  these  inclusions  is  not  known, 
but  even  if  it  is  fluxed  with  some  impurity  it  would  seem 
proper  to  call  the  inclusions  "alumina"  when  it  is 
known  that  their  character  is  determined  by  the  presence 
of  this  substance. 

Fig.  62  shows  the  inclusions  in  an  ingot  of  soft 
steel  in  which  chemical  analysis  showed  the  presence 
of  a  much  larger  amount  of  alumina  than  of  all  other 
insoluble  oxides,  thus  proving  the  presence  of  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  free  alumina.  Fig.  63  shows  some 
ordinary  slag  inclusions  in  a  cross-section  of  the  head 
of  a  rail.  This  photomicrograph,  Fig.  61  and  Fig.  71, 
are  included  to  show  the  difference  between  silicates 
and  alumina.  Fig.  64  shows  a  section  of  a  splice-bar, 
which  broke  in  a  railroad  track,  and  was  found  by 
analysis  to  contain  0.019%  °f  alumina.  Fig.  65  is  an 
alloy  made  on  a  very  small  scale  of  Swedish  iron  and 
aluminothermic  ferrotitanium,  and  shows  alumina  which 
was  not  present  in  the  original  iron.  Fig.  66  showrs  a  spot 
where  alumina  particles  are  segregated  in  the  web  of  a 
rail  in  which  0.003  %  was  f°und,  and  Fig.  67  is  an  average 
view  of  the  head  of  another  rail  containing  0.010%  of 
alumina.  Fig.  67  shows  the  most  common  mode  of 


88    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

occurrence  of  these  particles,  that  is,  scattered  thinly 
through  the  metal.  In  Fig.  66  most  of  the  specimen 
showed  very  few  inclusions,  but  the  small  segregated 
streaks  shown  in  the  photomicrograph  are  more  dan- 
gerous to  the  life  of  the  rail  than  the  larger  total  amount 
of  alumina  in  Fig.  67,  where  it  is  arranged  differently. 
Figs.  68  and  69  are  photomicrographs  of  the  same  streak, 
differently  polished;  the  former  shows  the  comet-tails 
mentioned  above,  while  in  the  latter  the  pitting  has  been 
more  successfully  avoided.  Fig.  70  is  a  view  of  some 
streaks  that  caused  the  top  of  the  head  of  a  rail  to  shell 
off  from  the  rest  of  the  section.  The  form  of  the  alumina 
is  well  contrasted  with  the  sulphides,  and  with  the  large 
slag  inclusion  in  Fig.  71,  which  is  a  large  but  typical 
silicate  streak  in  the  web  of  another  rail.  All  these 
photomicrographs  show  open  hearth  steel,  except  pos- 
sibly Fig.  64,  which  may  be  Bessemer,  and  Fig.  65  which 
is  an  electric  furnace  melt.  All  show  unetched  surfaces, 
and  all  except  Fig.  65  were  taken  with  a  magnification  of 
200  diameters.  Fig.  65  was  magnified  twice  as  much  as 
the  others. 

As  a  final  check  on  the  accuracy  of  the  assumption 
that  all  inclusions  in  steel,  having  exactly  the  same 
characteristics  as  those  shown  in  Fig.  60,  are  alumina, 
several  experimental  melts  were  made  of  rail  steel 
with  the  addition  of  various  oxides.  The  steel  used 
was  seen  by  previous  microscopic  examination  to  be 
practically  free  from  non-metallic  inclusions  except 
sulphides,  and  ten-pound  ingots  were  cast  from  it  each 
treated  with  one  of  the  following  oxides :  alumina, 
titanium  oxide,  chromium  oxide,  and  nickel  oxide. 
The  tops  of  these  ingots  were  forged  from  the  original 
2-inch  square  section  to  i-inch  square,  and  longitudinal 
sections  were  cut  and  carefully  polished  for  microscopic 
examination.  The  treatment  with  alumina  was  not  suc- 
cessful, as  this  treated  bar  appeared  just  as  clean  as  the 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.     89 

original  steel,  so  this  melt  was  made  over  again  with  the 
use  of  metallic  aluminum.  Characteristic  inclusions  of 
alumina  were  then  found  in  the  forged  bar,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  72.  Fig.  73  shows  part  of  a  small  streak  found 
near  the  top  of  the  bar  made  with  titanium  oxide.  The 
rest  of  this  bar  was  clean,  and  the  inclusions  shown 
would  ordinarily  be  classed  as  silicates  or  slag.  They 
show  a  peculiar  duplex  composition,  and  would  not  be 
mistaken  for  alumina. 

The  steel  treated  with  chromium  oxide  had  small 
smooth  purplish  spots  scattered  all  through  it,  but  they 
were  especially  segregated  in  some  streaks  at  the  top  of 
the  ingot.  Some  of  these  inclusions  were  angular  and 
some  rounded,  and  like  alumina  they  were  not  elongated 
by  the  forging.  Where  they  were  not  too  thickly  segre- 
gated, however,  they  took  a  good  smooth  polish  easily 
like  the  silicates,  and  from  this  fact  and  their  purplish 
color  they  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  alumina. 
Fig.  74  shows  the  end  of  one  of  the  segregated  streaks, 
where  small  particles  of  this  oxide  seem  to  be  break- 
ing away  and  entering  into  the  steel,  and  the  difference 
between  these  and  alumina  is  readily  apparent.  The 
steel  around  these  inclusions  was  very  readily  stained 
or  tarnished  during  the  polishing,  and  this  effect,  though 
noticed  also  with  the  nickel  oxide  and  sometimes  with 
titanium  nitride,  has  not  been  seen  by  the  writer  around 
streaks  of  alumina. 

The  last  Photomicrograph,  Fig.  75,  shows  some  of  the 
steel  treated  with  nickel  oxide,  but  these  inclusions  look 
exactly  like  iron  oxide,  and  it  may  be  that  the  nickel 
oxide  was  reduced  by  the  metallic  iron  present,  forming 
metallic  nickel  and  iron  oxide.  At  any  rate  these  inclu- 
sions are  entirely  different  in  appearance  from  alumina. 
They  look  very  much  like  sulphides,  but  are  a  little 
darker,  and  stand  out  more  in  relief  from  the  surrounding 
metal. 


90    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

The  evidence  available  is  thus  seen  to  point  uniformly 
to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  proper  to  identify  as  alumina 
all  inclusions,  seen  in  polished  steel  surfaces,  that  have 
exactly  the  characteristics  of  the  alumina  inclusions 
shown  in  Figs.  60  and  72.  At  present  no  other  sub- 
stance is  known  to  the  writer  which  has  the  same  appear- 
ance in  a  polished  steel  surface  as  alumina.  Ordinary 
slag  inclusions,  as  well  as  the  oxides  of  titanium,  chro- 
mium, and  nickel,  have  been  shown  to  be  very  different. 
Of  course  there  is  a  possibility  that  some  substance 
may  be  found  at  some  future  time  that  has  identically 
the  same  appearance,  but  the  writer  sees  no  reason 
to  expect  such  an  event,  and  believes  that  the  work 
described  above  renders  the  identification  of  alumina  in 
steel  with  the  microscope  a  matter  of  as  much  certainty 
as  the  similar  identification  of  sulphides  or  silicates, 
which  has  long  been  considered  reliable. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    9 1 


FIG.  60 — Inclusions  of  alumina  in  section  parallel  to  direction  of  forging  of  steel  treated 
with  a  large  excess  of  aluminum.     The  few  gray  spots  are  sulphides. 


FIG.  61 — Silicate  or  slag  inclusions  (with  a  few  gray  sulphides)  in  the  cross  section  of 
the  web  of  a  rail. 

BOTH    MAGNIFIED    2OO    DIAMETERS    AND    UNETCHED 


92    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


***  * 

•  -4* 


FIG.  62 — Alumina  inclusions  in  a  soft  steel  ingot  in  which  more  alumina  was  found  by 
chemical  analysis  than  all  other  oxides. 


I 


FIG.  63- — Silicate  or  slag  inclusions  in  the  cross  section  of  the  head  of  a  rail. 

BOTH    MAGNIFIED    2OO    DIAMETERS    AND    UNETCHED 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    93 


FIG.  64 — Section  of  broken  splice-bar  in  which  0.019%  °^  alumina  was  found  by  chemical 
analysis.     Magnified  200  diameters. 


FIG.  65 — Alloy,  made  in  small  electric  furnace,  of   aluminothermic   ferrotitanium  with 
Swedish  iron.     Magnified  400  diameters. 

BOTH    SHOW    TYPICAL    ALUMINA    INCLUSIONS    IN    UNETCHED    SECTIONS 


94    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


*  * 

* 


FIG.  66 — Group  of  segregated  inclusions  in  cross  section  of  the  web  of  a  rail  in  which 
0.003%  of  alumina  was  found  by  chemical  analysis.     Magnified  200  diameters. 


FIG.  67 — Average  view  of  the  cross  section  of  the  head  of  a  rail  in  which  0.010%  of 
alumina  was  found  by  chemical  analysis.     Magnified  200  diameters. 

BOTH    SHOW    TYPICAL    ALUMINA    INCLUSIONS    IN    UNETCHED    SECTIONS 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    95 


-,1 


FIG.  68 — Streak  of  alumina  inclusions  badly  polished,  showing  pits  and  scratches. 


FIG.  69 — Same  streak  shown  in  Fig.  68,  after  grinding  and  more  careful  polishing. 

BOTH    MAGNIFIED    ZOO    DIAMETERS    AND    UNETCHED 


96    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


FIG.  70  —  Longitudinal  section  of  a  streak  that  caused  the  top  of  the  head  of  a  rail  to 
shell  off,  showing  alumina  inclusions  above  and  sulphides  below. 


FIG.  71  —  Typical  large  silicate  or  slag  streak  in  the  cross  section  of  the  web  of  a  rail, 
showing  also  two  particles  of  alumina  and  some  fine  gray  sulphides. 

BOTH    MAGNIFIED    2OO    DIAMETERS    AND    UNETCHED 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    97 


2tu:Jftti 


~  - 


FIG.  72— Alumina  inclusions  in  clean  rail  steel  treated  with  an  excess  of  aluminum. 


FIG.  73 — Slag  inclusions  in  similar  steel  treated  with  oxide  of  titanium  before  casting. 

BOTH    SHOW    LONGITUDINAL    SECTIONS    OF   THE     FORGED     ENDS     OF    SMALL    INGOTS     CAST 
FROM    IO-LB.    MELTS    OF   THE    SAME    STEEL,    UNETCHED    AND    MAGNIFIED    2OO    DIAMETERS 


98    Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


*    . 


FIG.  74 — Steel  treated  with  oxide  of  chromium,  showing  end  of   a  broad  streak,  with 
typical  small  particles  embedded  in  the  metal. 


FIG.  75 — Steel  treated  with  oxide  of  nickel,  showing  typical  inclusions  of  either  nickel 
oxide  or  iron  oxide. 

BOTH     SHOW    LONGITUDINAL    SECTIONS    OF    THE    FORGED    ENDS   OF    SMALL    INGOTS      CAST 
FROM    IO-LB.    MELTS   OF  THE    SAME   STEEL,   UNETCHED    AND    MAGNIFIED    2OO     DIAMETERS 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    99 

THE    DETERMINATION    OF    ALUMINA 
IN    STEEL 

During  the  years  1913  and  1914  our  chemical  laboratory 
was  on  several  occasions  requested  to  determine,  if  pos- 
sible, alumina  in  steel;  particularly  free  alumina  resulting 
from  the  addition  of  aluminum  or  ferro  alloys  containing 
aluminum. 

Since  no  available  methods  were  found  in  the  literature 
on  the  analysis  of  steel,  the  development  of  a  method 
for  the  determination  of  alumina  was  attempted. 

Alumina  formed  at  the  high  temperature  of  molten 
steel,  as  would  be  the  case  wThen  aluminum  was  used  as 
a  deoxidizer  would  certainly  be  rather  refractory  to  the 
action  of  acids.  This  fact  suggests  the  probability  that 
an  acid  solvent  may  be  used  in  which  the  steel  will  dis- 
solve leaving  a  residue  of  alumina,  contaminated  perhaps 
with  other  oxides  resulting  from  incomplete  decomposi- 
tion of  slag  particles  which  might  also  occur  in  the  steel. 

Twenty  per  cent  sulphuric  acid  was  selected  as  the 
solvent  which  would  be  most  likely  to  dissolve  most  of 
the  slag  inclusions  while  having  little  or  no  action  on 
the  alumina  particles. 

Since  the  alumina  content  of  steel  would  under  the 
usual  practice  be  very  low,  it  was  decided  to  use  very 
large  samples  for  analysis,  thus  greatly  increasing  the 
accuracy  and  certainty  of  the  results.  Usually  either 
50  or  100  grams  of  sample  were  used. 

The  residue  insoluble  in  20  per  cent  sulphuric  acid 
was  collected  by  filtration  and  calcined.  The  calcined 
residue  which  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  alumina  particles 
and  constituents  derived  from  slag  inclusions  was  fused 
with  potassium  bisulphate  in  a  platinum  crucible.  The 
fusion  was  dissolved  in  water  with  addition  of  sulphuric 
and  hydrochloric  acids,  evaporated  to  fumes  of  sulphur- 
trioxide,  taken  up  with  water  and  hydrochloric  acid  and 


i  oo  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

silica  filtered  out.  The  filtrate  was  precipitated  by  am- 
monia, filtered  and  the  precipitate  redissolved  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  obtain  the  alumina  and  contaminating 
impurities  in  a  hydrochloric  acid  solution. 

The  alumina  was  then  separated  from  iron  by  the 
well  known  phenylhydrazine  method,  collected  by 
filtration  and  calcined. 

The  residue  thus  obtained  may  be  contaminated  with 
iron  and  phosphoric  acid  and  also  with  titanium  if  this 
element  is  present  in  the  steel.  To  purify  the  alumina 
the  calcined  precipitate  was  fused  with  one  to  three 
grams  of  sodium  carbonate  depending  on  the  amount  of 
material  to  be  fluxed.  The  fusion  was  dissolved  in 
water  in  the  platinum  crucible  and  filtered,  collecting 
the  filtrate  in  a  platinum  dish.  The  residue  on  the  filter 
was  calcined  and  again  fused  with  sodium  carbonate, 
dissolved  in  water,  filtered  and  the  filtrate  added  to  that 
reserved  from  the  first  treatment. 

The  solution  thus  obtained  contains  the  alumina  free 
from  iron  or  titanium,  but  may  still  be  contaminated  by 
phosphoric  acid.  The  solution  was  then  acidified  with 
hydrochloric  acid  and  the  alumina  and  phosphoric  acid 
precipitated  by  ammonia;  the  precipitate  filtered  out, 
calcined  and  weighed.  Phosphoric  anhydride  (PZO5) 
was  then  determined  in  the  weighed  material  and  the 
amount  found  deducted  from  the  first  weight  before 
calculating  the  percentage  of  alumina. 

Using  the  method  described  it  is  not  always  possible 
to  decide  if  the  alumina  in  the  steel  was  in  the  free 
state  or  was  wholly  or  partially  combined  with  other 
oxides  as  slag  inclusions;  though  in  some  cases  the  con- 
ditions and  results  were  such  as  to  indicate  that  the 
alumina  was  mostly  in  the  free  state;  and  in  such  cases 
our  analytical  work  was  usually  confirmed  by  metal- 
lographic  examination  by  which  means  typical  inclusions 
were  found  which  were  thought  to  be  alumina. 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    101 


Recently  during  investigations  on 
some  soft  steel  ingots  it  was  observed 
that  the  solution  of  the  steel  in  hy- 
drochloric acid  was  slightly  opales- 
cent due  to  suspended  particles  of 
some  light  colored  material.  The 
suspended  matter  was  collected  by 
filtration,  dried  and  microscopically 
examined  by  transmitted  light.  The 
material  had  the  appearance  of 
alumina  particles  and  by  subsequent 
qualitative  chemical  analysis  was 
proved  to  be  such. 

Special  samples  were  then  taken 
from  one  of  the  ingots  by  drilling, 
the  locations  of  which  are  shown  in 
the  accompanying  photograph.  From 
the  same  locations  in  the  ingot  speci- 
mens were  cut  for  metallographic 
examination. 

Duplicate  analyses  of  the  samples 
were  made  for  alumina,  using  the 
method  before  described,  and  also  by 
solution  of  the  sample  in  hydrochlo- 
ric acid  (i  to  i)  and  examination  of 
the  residue  by  the  usual  methods. 

To  better  compare  the  merits  of 
the  two  methods  of  analysis  and  also 
to  gain  more  information  on  the 
form  of  occurrence  and  characteris- 
tics of  alumina  in  steel;  the  residue 
insoluble  in  acid  was  examined  for 
other  elements  which  would  be  liable 
to  be  derived  from  slag  inclusions 
or  other  sources. 

As   usual,  large    samples   of  steel 


102  Ferrb  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

were  taken  to  obtain  enough  residue  on  which  to  work, 
and  to  increase  the  accuracy  of  the  results. 

The   results   of  analysis   are   shown   in   the   following 
table. 


SAMPLE  X-i 

SAMPLE  X-2, 

SAMPLE 
X-A 

Residue 

Residue 

Residue 

Residue 

Residue 

from 

from 

from 

from 

from 

Hydro- 

Sulphuric 

Hydro- 

Sulphuric 

Hydro- 

chloric Acid 

Acid 

chloric  Acid 

Acid 

chloric  Acid 

Silica  

.Oiy 

.023 

None 

.OO2 

None 

Copper  

None 

•°93 

None 

.099 

None 

Iron  Oxide    .... 

.012 

•034 

.010 

.028 

.052 

Phosphoric  anhy- 

dride . 

None 

OOO8          None 

OOOA 

Trace 

Alumina    

.052 

.Oyi 

.042 

.061 

I  .120 

The  results  in  the  above  table  indicate  that  a  sharper 
separation  of  free  alumina  from  impurities  can  be  made 
by  solution  in  hydrochloric  than  in  sulphuric  acid.  The 
method  depending  upon  solution  of  sample  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  being  further  studied  as  opportunity  per- 
mits with  a  view  of  making  it  a  standard  method  for 
determination  of  alumina  in  steel. 

The  results  also  show  conclusively  that  alumina  may 
occur  in  the  free  state  in  steel  and  greatly  strengthen  the 
probability  that  free  alumina  may  be  detected  by  metallo- 
graphic  examination. 

Regarding  the  accuracy  of  the  methods  outlined  it 
may  be  said  that  while  the  determination  of  alumina 
presents  some  difficulty  on  account  of  the  small  amount 
usually  present  in  steel,  we  have,  on  account  of  the 
special  precautions  taken  and  the  large  sample  used, 
felt  justified  in  reporting  a  definite  percentage  of  alumina, 
but  in  the  interpretation  of  results  we  are  inclined  to 
consider  the  determination  more  particularly  as  an 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    103 

accurate  qualitative  test,  positively  establishing  the 
presence  of  alumina  in  the  steel  and  indicating  the 
quantity  approximately. 

After  the  above  described  work  was  completed; 
through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  F.  O.  Kichline,  Chemist, 
Saucon  Plant,  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.,  an  advance  copy 
of  his  work  on  the  determination  of  alumina  in  steel  was 
received. 

Mr.  Kichline's  paper  has  since  been  published  in  the 
" Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry;" 
issue  of  September,  1915. 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  that  part  of  the  paper 
dealing  with  the  determination  of  alumina  in  steel : 

NOTE  ON  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  ALUMINUM 

OXIDE  AND  TOTAL  ALUMINUM 

IN  STEEL 

"It  has  long  been  known  that  aluminum  oxide  when 
freshly  precipitated  is  readily  soluble  in  acids  and  when 
strongly  ignited  is  very  difficultly  soluble  in  acids. 

"When  metallic  aluminum  is  added  to  steel  while 
casting,  its  tendency  is  to  unite  at  once  with  the  oxygen 
existing  in  the  steel,  both  as  metallic  oxides  and  as  CO 
gas.  The  products  of  this  reaction  are  AltOj,  the  metals 
of  the  oxides  reduced,  and  carbon.  Since  in  regular 
practice  there  is  only  sufficient  aluminum  added  to 
'  quiet  the  steel/  the  aluminum  added  is  nearly  all 
converted  to  the  oxide  AlaOr  This  aluminum  oxide  is, 
during  the  operation,  heated  to  the  temperature  of  pour- 
ing steel,  about  1600°  to  1650°  C.  (2912°  to  3000°  F.), 
whereby  it  is  rendered  almost  entirely  insoluble  in 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 

"In  order  to  test  the  effect  of  high  temperature  on  the 
solubility  of  AlzOj  the  following  experiment  was  carried 
out:  ten  grams  metallic  aluminum  were  dissolved  in 


1 04  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 

hydrochloric  acid,  boiled  low  and  replaced  three  times 
with  nitric  acid.  This  solution  of  aluminum  nitrate  was 
evaporated  to  dryness  to  drive  off  acid  fumes ;  the  residue 
was  transferred  to  a  platinum  dish  and  placed  into  a 
muffle  furnace  where  the  temperature  was  gradually 
raised  to  a  high  heat,  taking  out  a  portion  at  intervals, 
and  noting  the  temperature  each  time  with  a  Scimatco 
optical  pyrometer.  Portions  of  aluminum  oxide  were 
removed  at  815°,  900°,  980°,  1065°  and  H5O°C.  Solu- 
bility tests  were  made  by  taking  one  gram  of  each  portion 
and  digesting  for  one  hour  with  100  cc.  hydrochloric 
acid  (i  :  i),  filtering,  and  determining  AlaO?  in  the  filtrate. 


Portion  heated  to 
Gram  soluble  A12O3 

8i5°C. 

0.9317 

90o°C. 
0.3962 

98o°C. 

0.2377 

io65°C. 
0.0472 

ii5o°C. 

0.0390 

"The  increase  in  temperature  was  at  the  rate  of  eight  to 
ten  minutes  between  observations.  Another  portion  of 
the  same  AlaOg  prepared  above,  was  placed  in  a  boat  in 
the  silica  tube  of  an  electric  furnace  and  held  for  one 
hour  at  a  temperature  of  1000°  C. ;  one  gram  of  this  was 
treated  as  above  with  i  :  i  hydrochloric  acid  and  showed 
0.0285  gram  soluble  AlaOr  One  gram  alundum,  120 
mesh,  was  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid  as  above  and 
showed  a  mere  trace  of  soluble  AlaOr 

"The  solubility  diminished  with  increase  of  temperature 
and  length  of  time  to  which  the  A1ZO?  had  been  exposed 
to  the  heat.  If  AlaO3  exposed  to  iooo°C.  will  yield 
2.85  per  cent  of  its  A1ZO,  content,  and  alundum  exposed 
to  a  little  over  2OOO°C.  yields  a  trace,  it  is  safe  to  assume 
that  the  A1ZO3  formed  in  molten  steel  would  yield  only 
i  or  2  per  cent  of  its  content  on  treatment  with  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  which  on  such  low  figures  as  obtain 
with  percentages  of  A12O3  in  steel  is  certainly  negligible. 

"The  above  assertion  has  been  borne  out  in  practice, 
by  adding  just  enough  aluminum  to  deoxidize  the  steel, 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    1 05 

avoiding  an  excess.  By  employing  the  method  as  given 
below  on  such  steels,  all  of  the  aluminum  was  found  to 
be  in  the  insoluble  residue  as  oxide. 

"The  method  is  as  follows  :  Dissolve  50  grams  drillings 
in  a  mixture  of  200  cc.  strong  hydrochloric  acid  and 
300  cc.  water  at  gentle  heat,  bring  to  a  boil,  allow  insolu- 
ble matter  to  settle  and  filter  through  a  double  Baker  & 
Adamson  grade  A  paper  or  Schleicher  &  Schull  No.  590, 
and  wash  with  hot  dilute  (1:2)  hydrochloric  acid  and 
hot  water.  Ignite  the  residue  in  a  platinum  fusion 
crucible.  Add  \  gram  pure  sodium  borate  calcined,  and 
heat  gently  a  few  minutes  till  A1ZO3  is  in  solution.  Now 
add  5  grams  pure  sodium  carbonate  and  fuse  a  few 
minutes  longer  until  all  is  melted  and  in  a  state  of 
quiet  fusion.  Dissolve  fusion  in  hot  water  in  a  platinum 
or  nickel  dish,  and  determine  AlzOj  in  the  usual  manner." 

This  method  for  determination  of  alumina  has  been 
tried  out  in  our  laboratories  and  found  very  convenient 
and  reliable  if  proper  precautions  are  taken.  In  some 
cases  the  alumina  precipitate  may  contain  phosphoric 
acid  and  in  such  case  it  is  necessary  to  determine  and 
deduct  it  from  the  weight  of  A12O3  plus  PaO5  before 
calculating  the  percentage  of  alumina. 

With  this  precaution  the  method  is  recommended  in 
preference  to  those  first  given. 


PREPARATION    OF    THIN    WIRE    SAM- 
PLES   FOR    MICROSCOPIC 
EXAMINATION 

CROSS-SECTIONS    of  thin   wires    may    be    conveni- 
ently polished  for  the   microscope  in  three   (or 
possibly    more)    ways:     (i)    By    casting   fusible 
metal    around   them;     (2)    by   inserting   them   in   holes 
drilled  in  bronze  or  some  other  metal;    (3)  by  holding 
them   in    clamps    made   of  red    fibre.     The   experience 
gained  in   our  laboratory  with   these   three   methods   is 
described  below: 

(1)  For  this  method  J-inch  sections  of  brass  tubing 
(f-inch   inside   diameter  and  f-inch   outside)   were   cut, 
placed  on  moist  sand,  and  the  wire  samples  stuck  into 
the   sand   through   the   rings.     Some  of  Wood's  fusible 
alloy  was  melted  and  poured  into  the  rings  carefully  so 
that   they   were   entirely   filled.     The   wires   were    then 
trimmed    off,    and    the    samples    were  ground    flat    and 
polished  as  usual.     This  is  the  easiest  method  to  use, 
the  only  objection  to  it  being  that  owing  to  the  softness 
of  the  fusible  alloy,  it  wears  away  to  a  lower  level  than 
the  wire  during  polishing,  and  the  edges  of  the  wire  are 
thus  not  flat  and  sharp,  but  are  rounded  off  and  cannot 
be  brought  into  good  focus  in  the  microscope.     This  is 
a  serious  disadvantage  with  galvanized  wire,  where  the 
edge  is  the  place  to  be  examined,  but  the  fusible  metal 
has  not  been  found  to  alloy  with  the  zinc  coating  of  the 
wire  as  its  temperature  when  cast  is  very  low. 

(2)  This  method  is  very  simple  and  gives  good  results, 
but  the  hole  must  be  drilled  exactly  the  right  size  for 
the  wire,  and  the  wire  must  be  truly  circular  and  smooth 
in  outline.     These  conditions,  of  course,  are  not  always 
fulfilled,  so  that  it  is  not  often  possible  to  use  this  method. 

(3)  The  photomicrographs  of  galvanized  wires  in  this 
booklet  were  made  from  samples  polished  in  red  fibre 


The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.    1 07 

clamps.  To  make  one  of  these  clamps  two  pieces  of 
electricians'  insulating  red  fibre,  each  about  \"  x  J"  x  f", 
are  held  firmly  together  and  a  hole  a  trifle  smaller  than 
the  wire  sample  is  drilled  through  the  middle  of  the 
plane  of  contact.  The  two  pieces  are  then  taken  apart, 
the  wire  sample  is  inserted  between  them,  and  they  are 
again  clamped  together  by  a  small  holder  made  of  two 
pieces  of  steel  about  A"  x  yVr  x  J"  and  two  screws 
J"  in  diameter  and  J"  long.  The  wire  sample  is  trimmed 
off,  and  the  red  fibre  and  wire  are  polished  together  like 
an  ordinary  specimen  for  the  microscope.  The  clamps 
must  be  kept  very  tight,  for  the  results  will  not  be  good 
unless  there  is  perfect  contact  between  the  wire  and 
the  red  fibre.  The  disadvantage  of  this  method  is  that 
the  red  fibre  expands  when  wet  and  contracts  when  dry, 
so  that  if,  as  is  done  here,  the  polishing  is  done  dry  at 
first,  but  finished  with  wet  rouge,  the  fibre  expands  and 
rises  higher  than  the  steel,  hindering  the  final  polishing 
of  the  latter.  Of  course,  this  necessitates  repeating 
some  of  the  coarse  polishing  by  wet  methods,  and  not 
allowing  the  fibre  to  become  thoroughly  dry  before  the 
final  polishing  and  etching  are  accomplished.  The 
polishing  is  more  difficult  with  this  method  than  with 
the  others,  but  it  is  possible  to  get  better  results  with  it 
in  regard  to  sharpness  of  outline  at  the  edges  of  the 
wire  section. 


SPECIAL  BRONZE  CASTINGS   FOR 
STEEL  PLANTS 

ON   the    following   pages   are   listed  our  Standard 
Bronzes  as  cast  in  our  Foundry  Department. 
Of  especial   interest   to   steel    manufacturers   is 
our  Titanium   Aluminum   Bronze   for  such   castings   as 
worm  gears,  large  nuts,  pickling  crate  frames,  etc.  The 
great   strength,   toughness   and   wearing   properties   and 
the  superior  acid  resisting  qualities  of  this  Bronze  are 
are  well  and  favorably  known. 

Our  Bronze  Foundry  is  equipped  to  make  a  general 
line  of  brass  and  bronze  castings. 

It  is  as  specialists  in  high-grade  bronze,  however,  that 
we  appeal  for  an  opportunity  to  figure  on  unusual  and 
difficult  casting  requirements. 


SPECIFICATIONS   OF  OUR  TITANIUM  ALUMINUM 

AND  OTHER   STANDARD  BRONZE 

CASTINGS 


APPROXIMATE  COMPOSITION 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES 

OS 

w 

PER  CENT 

£ 

fc 

£  i- 

, 

s 

s 
u 

ft. 

« 

o* 

s 

* 

6 

3 

h 

g-2 

^ 

ffi   0 

£ 

3 
0 

3 

1 

C 

"a 

3 

a 

-o 

c 

1      .a 

So.S 

o  c 

OCJ 

1  rli 

I* 

a, 

< 

u 

P 

•5 

3 

££  ? 

w  8 

c«"8 

WZ  S, 

"Sl    O. 

^£ 

I 

9° 

10 

70000 

20 

7-5 

90  —  IOO       .22 

.27 

3 

89 

II 

35-40000 

6  —  10 

8.5 

70—79          .125 

•31 

IO 

77OOO 

24.  c 

7    S 

O2  —  06          .22 

.27 

IO 

i  c  -4.0000 

T  C  l8 

8.6 

6C  —  7O         .  I2C 

.•51 

IO 

88 

10 

2 

32-38000      14  —  1  8 

8.7 

70—75     .125 

•32 

II 

9° 

6.5 

i  .5 

2 

34-40000 

25-33 

8.8 

50  —  60 

•H 

•32 

'4 

88 

10 

2 

30-35000        15  —  20 

8.8 

65—70     .125 

•32 

80 

10 

10 

28-32000 

5-7 

9.0 

55—60    .125 

•33 

1  6 

81 

7 

9 

3 

30-35000 

15—18 

8-9 

5°-55      -I25 

•33 

18 

85 

5 

5 

S 

27-33000 

1  6  —  20 

8-5 

50  —  60 

.14 

•31 

19 

83 

4 

6 

7 

28-33000 

15  —  20 

8-5 

55-60 

•I25 

•31 

24 

70 

i 

2 

27 

28-31000 

22—28 

8-4 

5°-55 

.186 

•3° 

99-9 

I7-2OOOO 

40—  5  ! 

8.8 

30—40 

.25 

•32 

29 

56 

0.5 

43-5 

7OOOO 

22-35 

8.4 

104  —  119 

•25 

•3° 

8 

92 

. 

I  6-2OOOO 

I  —  2 

2.8 

5°-55 

.186 

.  10 

33 

3 

82 

15 

20-26000 

!—  3 

3-1 

60—65      .186 

.u 

The  Titanium  Alloy  Manufacturing  Co.   109 


DESCRIPTION  AND  USES 

ALLOY  No.  i  —  May  be  used  wherever  castings  of  strength  or  toughness  are  required, 
especially  where  they  must  resist  wearing  action,  as  in  a  worm  or  thread.  It  resists 
the  corrosive  action  of  salt  water,  tanning  and  sulphite  liquors  better  than  any  of  our 
other  bronzes.  Its  physical  properties  compare  closely  with  those  of  a  Swedish  Bessemer 
steel  with  .35  carbon. 

This  bronze  is  10%  lighter  than  either  yellow  brass  or  manganese  bronze,  17% 
lighter  than  phosphor  bronze  and  15%  lighter  than  red  brass  composition.  Its  coeffi- 
cient of  friction  is  .0018.  Reduction  of  area  21%. 

ALLOY  No.  3  —  Commonly  known  as  Stone's  English  Gear  Bronze  and  exten- 
sively used  in  this  country  and  abroad.  It  is  very  serviceable  for  gears  and  worm 
wheels  where  requirements  are  severe,  especially  when  quiet  running  is  a  desired  feature. 
It  should  be  used  against  nicely  finished  high  carbon  or  alloyed  steels. 

While  this  bronze  is  very  well  considered  and  adequately  meets  present  requirements 
of  all  high-grade  gears,  the  greater  strength  and  hardness  and  the  lower  specific  gravity 
of  our  Alloys  Nos.  I  and  5  are  factors  which  should  be  very  carefully  considered  by  all 
users  of  this  type  of  bronze.  Its  reduction  of  area  is  7-9%. 

ALLOY  No.  5  —  A  Titanium  Aluminum  Bronze  very  similar  to  our  No.  i  but  having 
slightly  better  machining  properties.  We  recommend  this  alloy  for  large,  heavy  work 
where  great  strength  and  resistance  are  required. 

The  machining  properties  of  this  alloy  and  of  No.  I  must  be  compared  to  high  tin 
alloys  and  not  to  the  ordinary  commercial  bronzes.  The  Titanium  Aluminum  Bronzes 
are  unusually  tough  and  hence  somewhat  harder  to  machine.  Its  reduction  of  area  is 
27.3%. 

ALLOY  No.  9  —  An  acid  resisting  bronze,  used  in  place  of  cast  iron  where  acid  is 
present,  as  in  mine  pump  bodies  and  other  similiar  locations.  It  is  suitable  for  thrust 
collars  or  discs  where  high  pressure  occurs.  Like  Alloy  No.  3,  this  bronze  is  often 
used  where  compression  is  a  factor,  as  both  are  stronger  than  Alloy  No.  15.  Where 
this  condition  is  to  be  met  the  bearing  surface  of  either  of  these  alloys  must  be  very 
carefully  prepared  so  as  to  prevent  scoring. 

ALLOY  No.  10  —  This  is  practically  the  "G"  bronze  of  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engi- 
neering of  the  U.  S.  Navy  Department. 

A  strong  general  utility  alloy  widely  known  as  "Gun  Metal" — where  heavy  pressures 
and  high  speeds  obtain  or  for  superheated  steam  hydraulic  work,  thrust  collars,  etc.,  it 
gives  satisfactory  results.  The  absence  of  granular  structure  in  this  alloy  has  caused 
it  to  be  widely  recommended  for  high-grade  bearings.  If  so  used  it  must  be  closely 
fitted  and  run  against  hardened  and  ground  pins  only. 

ALLOY  No.  1 1  —  An  excellent  medium  soft  bronze,  extensively  used  in  the  auto- 
mobile industry  for  small  bearings  when  lined  with  genuine  babbitt.  It  is  recommended 
for  bearings  where  non-corrodibility  is  required,  for  high  speeds  and  heavy  pressures 
or  for  severe  service  steam  work  to  resist  leakage.  The  lead  content  is  sufficient  to  give 
this  bronze  conformability  so  that  if  the  adjacent  part  is  not  closely  fitted  the  alloy 
should  come  to  a  bearing  without  cutting. 

ALLOY  No.  14  —  A  gear  bronze  which  is  softer  than  either  Alloys  Nos.  i  or  3.  The 
presence  of  lead  makes  it  machine  more  easily.  It  is  applicable  for  small  gears  where 
the  service  is  not  too  severe. 

ALLOY  No.  15  —  The  standard  phosphor  bronze  for  high  speed  and  heavy  pressure. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  serviceable  bearing  metals  of  the  so-called  phosphor  bronzes,  and 
is  extensively  used  for  bearings  subject  to  shock  and  vibration,  heavy  work  and  high 
speeds,  such  as  locomotive  cross  head  bearings,  crank  pins,  bridge  bearings,  roll  necks, 


1 1  o  Ferro  Carbon-Titanium  in  Steel  Making 


mill  table,  grinder,  blower  and  road  machinery  bearings.  Heavy  work  of  this  character 
is  not  usually  as  closely  fitted  as  small  work  so  that  the  high  lead  content  of  this  alloy 
materially  aids  in  the  conformation  of  the  bearing. 

ALLOY  No.  16  —  This  bronze  is  very  similar  to  Alloy  No.  15,  the  lower  tin  content 
making  it  slightly  lower  in  price.  It  is  also  somewhat  softer  and  where  service  con- 
ditions will  permit  the  use  of  brass  ingot  in  its  manufacture,  a  very  considerable  saving 
can  be  effected. 

ALLOY  No.  18  —  This  is  a  high  grade  red  brass,  generally  known  as  the  standard 
"Red  Composition,"  or  "Ounce  Metal."  It  is  a  good  steam  metal;  used  widely  for 
pump  bodies,  valves  and  similar  articles.  For  general  service  it  is  regarded  as  an 
excellent  bearing  metal.  In  the  estimation  of  the  trade  it  is  rated  between  the  red 
brasses  and  the  cheaper  phosphor  bronzes. 

ALLOY  No.  19  —  Commercial  Red  Brass,  recommended  where  conditions  permit 
the  use  of  a  cheaper  "Red  Metal11  than  Alloy  No.  18.  As  in  Alloy  No.  16,  if  condi- 
tions permit,  a  considerable  saving  can  be  effected  in  the  manufacture  of  castings  of 
this  alloy  by  the  use  of  ingot  brass. 

ALLOY  No.  24  —  A  good  grade  yellow  brass  which  casts  well,  takes  a  good  polish 
and  is  very  suitable  for  light  castings,  such  as  ornamental  work  where  strength  is  not  an 
important  factor. 

ALLOY  No.  28  —  Pure  copper  for  use  on  electrical  installations  and  for  die  blocks 
on  electric  welding  machines.  This  alloy  has  high  electrical  conductivity,  due  to  the 
special  deoxidization.  So  called  pure  copper  castings  are  ordinarily  accepted  with 
from  i%  to  3%  zinc  and  their  conductivity  runs  well  under  60%,  whereas  the  con- 
ductivity of  Alloy  No.  28  is  over  70%  and  may  run  as  high  as  85%. 

ALLOY  No.  29  — •  This  alloy  is  commonly  known  as  Manganese  Bronze  and  is  of 
value  for  castings  where  great  strength  and  toughness  are  required.  Manganese  Bronze 
is  one  of  the  two  high  tensile  bronzes,  the  other  being  Aluminum  Bronze.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  for  propeller  blades  and  hubs,  valve  stems,  engine  framing  and  other  parts 
requiring  great  strength. 

In  our  opinion  Titanium  Aluminum  Bronze  is  superior  to  any  manganese  bronze 
for  practically  all  requirements.  This  opinion  is  substantiated  by  many  eminent  authori- 
ties and  the  only  reason  for  the  more  extensive  use  of  manganese  bronze  has  been  the 
well  recognized  difficulty  of  making  the  copper-aluminum  alloys.  Alloy  No.  29  is  not 
a  good  bearing  bronze. 

ALLOY  No.  32  —  This  is  the  standard  aluminum  alloy  for  crank  cases,  housings, 
automobile  castings,  etc. 

ALLOY  No.  33  —  An  aluminum  alloy  which,  due  to  its  zinc  content,  is  tougher  than 
No.  32.  It  takes  a  high  polish  and  can  be  bent  slightly  without  breaking. 

The  foregoing  series  of  Alloys  covers  those  most  fre- 
quently made  in  our  Foundry,  but  we  are  constantly 
making  Brasses  or  Bronzes  for  special  requirements. 
Our  organization  is  prepared  to  study  any  unusual 
problems  which  may  be  present,  and  to  recommend,  as 
a  result  of  research  work,  .the  most  suitable  Alloy  for  each 
specific  requirement. 


THE    TITANIUM 
ALLOY    MANUFACTURING    CO. 

GENERAL  OFFICES  AND  WORKS 

NIAGARA    FALLS,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A. 


SELLING    OFFICES 

NEW  YORK —  i  5  Wall  Street 

PITTSBURGH  —  Oliver  Building 

CHICAGO  —  Peoples  Gas  Building 

DETROIT — Ford  Building 


REPRESENTATIVES 

PACIFIC    COAST 
ECCLES  &  SMITH   Co.,  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles  and  Portland 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  EUROPE 
T.  ROWLANDS  &  Co.,  LTD.,  Sheffield,  England 


A  confirmatory  of  the   novelty   and   utility  of  the 
results  of  our  researches  and  progress,  and  the 
appreciation  thereof  by  Patent  Office  experts,  we 
append  a  particular  list  of  our  Letters   Patents  of  the 
United  States  relating  to  the  subjects  referred  to  in  the 
preceding  pages,  or  to  others  of  kindred  nature,  involved 
in    this    Company's    operations.     For    brevity,    this    list 
omits   reference    to   our   foreign    patents,    many   of  our 
domestic    patents,    and    all    of  our    numerous    pending 
applications  for  patents. 


648,439 
668,266 
700,244 
713,802 
721,467 
802,941 
822,305 
877,518 


905,232 


979*393 

979*394 

986,504 

986,505 

986,645 

1,003,805 

1,003,806 

1,017,807 

1,019,526 

1,019,527 

1,019,528 


,019,529 
,019,530 
,019,531 
,020,512 
,020,513 
,020,514 
,020,515 
,020,516 
,020,517 
,022,595 
,022,596 
,022,597 
,022,598 
,022,599 
,022,600 
,022,799 
,023,331 
,023,332 
,023,333 
,023,334 
,024,476 
,025,426 


,028,389 
,029,637 
,039,672 
,056,125 
,080,718 
,080,721 
,084,036 
,085,488 
,094,022 
,104,317 
,105,308 


Canadian 
Patents 

96,012 
130,196 
132,718 
132,880 

i33,OI4 

145,718 


UNIVEESITY   OF   CALIFORNIA   LIBRARY, 
BERKELEY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED   BELOW 

Books  not  returned  on  time  are  subject  to  a  fine  of 
50c  per  volume  after  the  third  day  overdue,  increasing 
to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration  of  loan  period. 


75m-8,'31 


YB  3829 j 


501807 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


